Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region

Abstract

Natural fractures are commonly observed in the unconventional reservoir. Production history indicates that natural fractures have been playing an important role in the oil and gas development progress by improving the permeability of the reservoir and increasing the well productivity. In addition, inappropriate development strategies result in the unreasonable single well oil rate, early water breakthrough, severe damages to the unconventional reservoir and overwhelming economic losses when the fracture properties and distributions are not well understood before the development. Hence, it is of great importance to propose a powerful and efficient workflow to describe the fracture distribution clearly, including building a 3D fracture model, performing history matching and forecasting productions of the unconventional reservoir. In this study, we present a powerful and practical workflow through using Fracflow software and EDFM (Embedded Discrete Fracture Model) to build the 3D DFN (Discrete Fracture Network) model. The main methodology used to perform the fracture modelling allows rigorously handling of both hydraulic fractures and natural fractures that can be identified in an unconventional reservoir. This modelling allows computing the real geometrical fracture attributes (mainly orientation and density) and the spatial distribution of fractures. Fracture conductivity values will be calibrated through a comparison of the Kh(permeability thickness) from the well test to the Kh model computed from the upscaling of the fracture model. The mentioned model above will be built by means of a stochastic simulation constrained by the results of the static and dynamic fracture characterization. In the reservoir simulation phase, EDFM processor combining commercial reservoir simulators is fully integrated to perform history matching and production performance forecast of the unconventional reservoir. With a new set of formulations used in EDFM, the non-neighboring connections (NNCs) in the EDFM are converted into regular connections in traditional reservoir simulators, and the NNCs factors are linked with gridblock permeabilities. EDFM provides three kinds of NNC pairs, transmissibility factors, and the connections between fractures and wells. With the aid of the EDFM processor, we can obtain the number of additional grids, the properties of fracture grids, and the NNCs as the simulation input. From the proposed workflow, complex dynamic behaviors of natural fractures can be captured. This will further ensure the accuracy of DFMs and the efficiency offered by structured gridding. The practical workflow for the unconventional reservoir from modelling to simulation highlights the model constrained by the results of the static and dynamic fracture characterization, and the high efficiency to model discrete fractures through the revolutionary EDFM processor. Through this workflow, we can perform history matching effectively and simulate complex fractures including hydraulic fractures and naturally fractures. It potentially can be integrated into existing workflow for unconventional reservoirs for sensitivity analysis and production forecasting.

Abstract

The objective of this study is to develop a workflow to rapidly simulate injection and production phases of hydraulically fractured shale wells by (a) incorporating fracture propagation in flow simulators using a simplified physical model for pressure-dependent fracture conductivity and fracture pore volume (b) developing a hybrid Fast Marching Method (FMM) and 3D Finite Difference(FD) model for efficient coupled simulation and (c) automating the entire workflow for rapid analysis in a single simulator domain.

Pressure-dependent fracture transmissibility and pore volume multiplier models are assigned to predefined potential hydraulic fracture paths to mimic geomechanical behavior of fractures (i.e. opening and closure). The multipliers are based on empirical equations (e.g., Barton-Bandis model) and theoretical models (e.g., linear elastic fracture mechanics and cubic law). The FMM-based simulation transforms an original 3D reservoir model into an equivalent 1D simulation grid leading to orders of magnitude faster computation and is utilized to efficiently history-match field production and pressure data. A population-based history matching algorithm was used to minimize data misfit and quantify uncertainties in tuning parameters.

We demonstrate the effectiveness and efficiency of the proposed method using synthetic and field examples. First, we validated our proposed simplified fracture propagation model with a comprehensive coupled fluid flow and geomechanical simulator, ABAQUS. The results showed close agreement in both injection pressure response and fracture geometry. Next, the method was applied to a field case to history-match injection pressure and production data. Fracture geometry and properties were inferred from the injection phase and are input to the production phase modeling. After history matching, the misfit and uncertainty ranges in reservoir and fracture properties were substantially reduced.

The proposed workflow enables rapid analyses of hydraulically fractured wells and does not require computationally demanding geomechanical simulations to generate fracture geometry and properties. The FMM-based simulation further improves computational efficiency and allows us to automate the workflow using population-based history matching algorithms to quantify and assess parameter uncertainty.

Abstract

The Eocene Lower Barmer Hill (LBH) Formation is the major regional source rock in the Barmer Basin rift, located in Rajasthan, India, and has substantial unconventional shale potential. The basin is almost completely covered with 3D seismic, providing an opportunity for more surgical mapping of the rapid structural and stratigraphic changes typical with any syn-rift deposit. Thick sections of organic-rich black shales reaching 400 meters thickness with TOC up to 14 wt. %, were deposited during a period of widespread basin deepening. Algal-rich type I oil prone kerogens dominate in north and generate oil, with very little gas. These shales mature at much lower temperatures than the mixed type I and III kerogens in the south, which also generate much larger amounts of gas and oil, and at higher threshold temperatures. The variable kinetics, as well as rapid facies variations typical of rifts, provide challenges to high-grading and testing unconventional shale plays.

Extensive Rock Eval pyrolysis and source rock kinetic databases were combined with petrophysical analysis to determine log-based porosity and saturations and productive potential. Modified Passey techniques calibrated to NMR log porosities provide estimates of organic richness as well as maturity and shale oil saturation. Basin modeling using Trinity software provides probabilistic ranges of generated and expelled hydrocarbons to determine storage capacity. The modeled oil window storage capacity varies between 6 to 13 MMBOE/km², comparable to the values observed in Eagle Ford and Barnett Shale plays, but in a rifted basin and not broad cratonic shelf deposits.

Excess pore pressure was modeled using the kinetics of kerogen-to-oil conversion, and is noted in some of the deeper wells in tight sandstones, but not confirmed in the undrilled grabens. These pressure-gradient maps, along with oil properties (viscosity and oil mass fractions) derived from the geochemical model, are used to compute the producibility index. Composited storage capacity and producibility index maps have high-graded potential pilot areas.

In contrast to cratonic shale plays such as the Bakken or Eagle Ford, rapid and substantial facies variations occur due to local input of clastics and variable turbidite geometries which form potential targets for horizontal drilling. Increasingly more detailed paleogeographic maps are highlighting both the challenge and potential of the rich source rock in this basin.

This paper will cover how geochemical, structural, paleogeographic, petrophysical and other data are being used to derisk unconventional potential in this rich and complex rift system. Learnings from future testing of the Barmer Basin shale plays will be important to understand how to develop shale plays in other lacustrine rift basins.

Abstract

Identification and quantification of parasequences remains a key aspect in unconventional reservoir development [1] demonstrated the importance of gamma ray parasequences (GRP) in unconventional play development. Currently, most of the drilling plans in unconventional plays are executed using a ‘factory made” drilling and completion program. Due to thousands of wells in an unconventional play, it is a very difficult task for operators to incorporate the fine scale reservoir characterization in time for drilling plan.

Currently the upward dirtying and upward cleaning parasequences in shale plays are interpreted qualitatively and manually by a human interpreter on individual well logs. We believe these parasequences hold key information about the underlying geology and their quantification can provide key insights into the depositional environment and hence reservoir quality. Incorporating this information in due time for drilling and completion can aid the decision making process on well placement and hydraulic fracturing design.

In this work, we handle the reservoir characterization challenge on two fronts: we first provide a statistical filtering approach to interpret the parasequences in a well log and then use machine assisted application on other wells in the area of interest. We then use Least-squares fit to obtain slopes of these parasequences. Furthermore, we map these slopes and compare them to the conventional parasequence thickness map to provide quantitative well log attributes to help aid the geologic interpretation.

Introduction

Unconventional play development has key differences to that of a conventional play development. In a conventional porosity, permeability etc. are the key drivers for production. Well spacing and landing the best zone and hydraulic fracturing guide the production performance in horizontal wells. As the well is completed with hydraulic fracturing operation, the geomechanical properties of the layer become of utmost importance ([2]-6]). [1] proposed that the layered properties of the shale reservoir are highly complex and is composed of alternating brittle and ductile geological sequences also known as brittle-ductile couplets [7]. The optimal landing zone depends on a tradeoff between the brittleness and rock properties such as total organic carbon(TOC). The good rock from the reservoir perspective which is high in TOC is generally more ductile and not a suitable candidate for hydraulic fracturing operation and vice versa.

Abstract

Fracture geometry is always the focus of stimulation evaluation, especially for unconventional reservoirs. Though treating pressure calibration, hydraulic fracture modeling and microseismic monitoring throw some lights on the fracture characteristics, operators still are far from understanding the real fractures for its apparent complex process. This paper presents a series of 1m³ large block fracturing tests in different type of rocks from corresponding formation outcrops to help acquire some common senses on fracture propagation.

Hydraulic fracturing polyaxial tests were conducted on large scale homogeneous sandstone, carbonate, coal, shale and highly laminated tight oil rocks. To investigate the hydraulic fracture propagation mechanism and decisive factors in different rocks in normal condition, we use integrated analysis including fracturing pressure analysis, acoustic emission monitoring, rock splitting and tracing the dyed fracturing fluid. We also evaluate some industry-recognized factors affecting the fracture propagation such as vertical stress differences or weak planes induced fracture containment, fluid viscosity, natural fractures, horizontal beddings, horizontal stress contrast and orientation. Field microseismic monitoring results were also presented with same rock fabrics and geomechanics.

In homogeneous sandstone and carbonate, after breaking down, the pressure in the fracture keeps declining until breaking out of the rock border. Acoustic monitoring results show that hydraulic fracture propagates forward and upward simultaneous and the complete dynamic fracture propagation process is visualized. The dyed fluid on the rock confirms traditional bi-wing fractures and the geometry is correspondent with the monitoring result. This scenario can be used to represent the fracture breakdown process or fracturing large homogeneous interval. While fracturing highly laminated tight rocks, the hydraulic pressure keeps increasing steadily which represent the severe fracture containment or high process-zone stress. Rock splitting and acoustic emission mapping results also proved that fracture initiated and propagated along the horizontal-bedding. Coal and shale fracturing results proved that the rock heterogeneity and natural fracture play a decisive role in fracture propagation. Vertical stress differences is a major factor of fracture containment and low viscosity fluid also limit the fracuture height. Horizontal bedding severely confined and hindered the fracture propagating vertically, and the laboratory tests showed that induced bedding-parallel stimulation was performed. Laboratory tests and field microseismic monitoring results both indicate that the real fracture geometries are much more complicated than we predicted.

Even though there are big differences between laboratory tests and field stimulation in the aspect of rock, scale, geomechanics, fluid and pump rate. However, they still have proved some inherent mechanisms of fracture propagation for stimulation engineers. Rock fabric such as horizontal bedding, natural fracture are often overlooked and unquantifiable factors when considering the fracture geometry, which may even play a decisive role in fracture propagation.

ABSTRACT

Investigation of the permeability of carbonate rocks is essential and challenging due to the heterogeneity of carbonates at all scales. At the micro-scale, pore geometry, pore size distribution, and pore connectivity are important factors controlling permeability. This study focuses on the influence of pore size distribution and pore structure on permeability to better understand the fluid flow in carbonate rocks.

In this paper, we use micro-computer tomography (micro-CT) to capture the microscopic heterogeneity in the pore structure. Firstly, we collected seven 1 x 6 inch carbonate rock samples including Indiana Limestone, Desert Rose, and Travertine with various porosities and permeabilities. The porosity was measured gravimetrically, and permeability was measured with core plug flooding experiments. Cubic centimeter size core samples were scanned with enhanced micro-CT imaging with the resolution of 6-8 μm/voxel, then scanned 2D images were processed with image processing software to distinguish the pore system from the matrix. The pore size distribution for each rock sample was determined by fitting a statistical function based on the binarized images. We defined a concept of equivalent pore radius to characterize the pore system, which effectively filters out the non-contributing small pores and preserves the pores actually contributing to fluid flow. The relationship between the equivalent pore radius of each rock and permeability was investigated. Based on the 2D image stack, we also constructed the 3D pore network to observe the pore structure, quantify connectivity and specific surface ratio to study their influence on permeability.

We found that laboratory measured permeability from core plugs was strongly correlated to the equivalent pore radius calculated from micro-CT scanned images among the investigated carbonate rock samples. The semilogarithmic correlation between permeability and effective pore radius fit the measured permeability data very well over a permeability range of more than two orders of magnitude. The findings of pore-scale pore structure and pore size distribution in this study are helpful for carbonate rock analysis, and the proposed new correlation between equivalent pore radius and permeability is practical for permeability estimation for a wide range of carbonate rocks.

The YKL condensate gas reservoir is one of the biggest condensate gas reservoirs in China and has been developed more than 10years. At present, the combination of subdivision layer, production speed optimization and horizontal well drilling has been the key to economically unlocking the vast reserves of the YKL condensate gas. The primary recovery factor, however, remains rather low due to high capillary trapping and water invasion. While primary depletion could result in low gas recovery, CO₂ flooding provides a promising option for increasing the recovery factor.

The objective of this work is to verify and evaluate the effect supercritical CO₂ on enhancing gas recovery and analyze the feasibility of CO₂ enhance gas recovery (CO₂ EGR) of condensate gas reservoir.

Firstly, novel phase behavior experimental procedures and phase equilibrium evaluation methodology for gas-condensate phase system mixed with supercritical CO₂ with high temperature were presented. A unique phase behavior phenomena was also reported. Then, CO₂ floodingmechanism in condensate gas reservoir was analyzed and clarified based on experiments. Finally, a series of numerical simulation work were conducted as an effective and economical means to maximize natural gas recovery with the lowest CO₂ breakthrough by varying strategies, including CO₂ injection rate, injection composition, andinjection timing. Meanwhile the CO₂ storage volumes of different strategies were calculated.

The results show that higher gas recovery factor can be achieved with CO₂ injection through appearing interphase between two fluids, maintaining reservoir pressure, driving gas like "cushion" and controlling water invasion. All strategies have moderate to significant effects on gas production. The control of injection and production ratio needs to be balanced between pressure transient and CO₂ breakthrough over the producer to obtain the maximum gas production. The varying injection pressure shows a positive effect of enhancing gas production. Numerical simulation indicated that the recovery of gas reservoir was improved by around 10 percent. The total CO₂ storage would be around 30-40% HCPV.

The research showed that CO₂ flooding presents a technically promising method for recovering the vast condensate gas while extensively reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Curved pipes are essential components of subsea process equipment and some part of production pipeline and riser. So far, most of the studies on of wax deposition and the possible mitigation strategies have been carried out using straight pipelines, with little attention given to curved pipes. Therefore, the objective of this study is to use an experimental flow loop designed and assembled in the lab to study and understand the mechanisms and variable parameters that affect wax depositional behaviour under the single-phase flow. Series of experiments were carried out with pipes curvatures of 0, 45 and 90-degree at different flow rates (2 and 11 L/min). The sequence in which the bends are incorporated creates non-uniformity of boundary shear, flow separation, and caused isolation of fluid around the bends that affect wax deposition, which depends on flow regimes – Reynolds number along with the radius of curvature of the bend. Prior to the flow loop experiment, the waxy crude oil was characterized by measuring the viscosity, WAT (30°C), pour point (25.5°C), n-Paraffin distribution (C10 - C67), and the saturated/aromatic/resin/asphalte (SARA) fractions

Results of this study shows that the wax deposit thickness decreases at higher flow rate within the laminar (Re<2300) and turbulent (Re>2300) flow regimes. It was observed that the deposition rate was significantly higher in curved pipes, about 8 and 10% for 45 and 90-degree, respectively in comparison to the straight pipe for all flow conditions. Increase elevation of the curved pipe, however, led to a more wax deposition trend; where a higher percentage of wax deposit was observed in 45-degree compared to 90-degree curved pipe. This trend was due addition of gravity forces to the frictional forces - influenced by the physical mechanisms of wax deposition mainly molecular diffusion, shear dispersion and gravity settling. From the results of this study, a new correlation between wax deposit thickness and pressure drop was developed. A relationship was established between wax deposit thicknesses, bend angle in pipes and wax deposition mechanisms with a reasonable agreement with published data, especially for steady state condition. Therefore, this study will enhance the understanding of the wax deposition management and improve predictions for further development of a robust mitigation strategy.

Located at the foothills of Tianshan mountains, western China, the Dibei tight gas reservoir has become one of the key exploration areas in last decade because of its large gas reserve potential. The previous exploration effort yielded mixed results with large variations of the production rates from these exploration wells and many rates are too low to be deemed as discovery wells. Petrophysical properties were excluded as controlling factors because these properties for most exploration wells are very similar. Under the large tectonic stress, heterogeneous natural fracture systems are induced and unevenly distributed in the reservoir, which might be the controlling factor for production. However, due to the limitation of the seismic data quality, quantitative fracture modeling with seismic is not possible for this field. A new method predicting the 3D occurrence of the natural fractures in the reservoir is needed.

In this study, geomechanics-based methods were used to predict the natural fracture systems in the reservoir. The methods started from classification of natural fracture systems based on borehole image and core data into either fold-related and/or fault-related fractures. Geomechanics-based structure restoration was conducted to compute the deformation and the perturbed stress field from the restoration of complex geological structures through time. A correlation was established between the fold-related perturbated stress field and the occurrence of fold-related fractures from wells to predict the 3D occurrence of this type of natural fractures. Meanwhile, the computation of the perturbed stress field around 3D discontinuities (i.e. faults) for one or more tectonic events was conducted by the Boundary Element Method (BEM) until a good match was achieved between the fault-related perturbed stresses and observed fault-related fractures from the wellbore. By using the output from the two methods, the discrete fracture network (DFN) model was constructed to explicitly represent the occurrence and geometry of the natural fracture system in the reservoir in a geological model. A geomechanical model was constructed based on an integrated workflow from 1D to 3D. The fracture stability was then calculated based on the 3D geomechnical model.

Detailed analysis was conducted among the DFN model, the geological model of the reservoir and productivity of the exploration wells, and very good correlation was revealed between the productivity of the exploration wells and the occurrence and geometry of the natural fractures and the structural position of the reservoir.

This study shows that geomechanics-based methods efficiently capture the occurrence of natural fracture systems and reveal the production-controlling factors of the tight gas reservoir. It demonstrates that geomechanics is a powerful tool to support successful exploration of the tight gas reservoir in tectonically stressed environments.

KS is a tight-sandstone and high-pressure-high-temperature (HPHT) gas reservoir in northwest China. It is characterized by a depth of more than 6000 m, temperature over 175°C, and pore pressure over 110 MPa. Despite the high unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of sandstone, almost half of the wells encountered sanding issues. The sanding wells exhibited low production rate, nozzle and pipeline erosion, sanding up, and even permanent closure. Investigating the sanding mechanism and developing solutions for sanding prevention are urgent needs due to the economic loss of low production.

An integrated sanding study was conducted to investigate the sanding mechanism. The entire sanding process was analyzed, including stress field alteration during production, rock failure, softening, and sand grain migration. First, wells with sanding issues were identified through production characteristics and field observation. After this, analysis of laboratory tests was performed to better understand the tight-sandstone properties, especially UCS, the softening parameter, and residual strength. Based on the tests, an elastoplastic damage model was proposed to delineate rock failure and sanding behavior. Then, a finite element model was built to simulate the damage of a perforation hole with field data, including hole diameter and length, rock stiffness and strength, drawdown, depletion, and so on. More simulation scenarios were performed to investigate the continuous sanding, transient sanding, and water hammer effect. Grain migration in perforation holes and in pipelines was also studied.

It was revealed that shear failure of perforation hole induced by drawdown and depletion was the root cause of sanding problem. Meanwhile, it was also confirmed that erosion and water hammer effect had very limited effect on sanding. Use of the elastoplastic damage model for the simulation of perforation hole failure enabled predicting the sand amount and determining the critical drawdown and depletion for sanding. In the end, an approach to identifying wells with high sanding risk and the key factors behind the sanding were provided, and sanding prevention suggestions were proposed.

The new elastoplastic damage model explains the sanding mechanism in a tight-sandstone reservoir and enables evaluating the sand volume, which has rarely been published previously. Laboratory tests, field observation, and numerical simulation were combined effectively to investigate the sanding issue. By utilizing the model, producers can find the key factors behind sanding issues, prevent sanding with a better production strategy, and avoid the economic loss, which are critical for the long-term exploration and production of this area.