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Collaborating Authors
CSIRO Land and Water
Evaluation of Conservative Tracers for Coal Seam Reservoirs
Heryanto, Deasy (CSIRO Energy) | Connell, Luke (CSIRO Energy) | Lupton, Nicholas (CSIRO Energy) | Du, Jun (CSIRO Land and Water) | Camilleri, Michael (CSIRO Energy)
Abstract Tracer tests are used extensively in the petroleum industry for the characterisation of fluid flow behaviour within reservoirs and identification of flow pathways. With the rapid development of unconventional reservoirs, tracers have been used to measure the effectiveness of hydraulic fracture stimulation, improving the understanding of fracture fluid loss and flowback efficiency. In coal seam gas reservoirs, tracer tests could also be used to investigate the connections between the producing formation and other geological units such as aquifers. A conservative water tracer is required to be chemically inert, environmentally safe, non-toxic, and stable at reservoir conditions. It must be detectable at very low concentrations and economically practical. A group of fluorinated benzoic acids (FBAs) have been used broadly as chemically passive water tracers in several applications within petroleum. In coal seam gas reservoirs, the key question in the use of any conservative tracer is the potential for adsorption on the coal as this will lead to either retardation or loss of the tracer. Among the 18 commercially available FBAs, 2,6 difluorobenzoic acid (2,6-DFBA) has been identified to have the lowest adsorption potential as demonstrated by its octanol-water partition coefficient. This study presents a series of batch and core-flooding experiments conducted to assess the adsorption of several water tracers on coal. The tracers selected for this study were two FBAs, one of which was 2,6-DFBA, and the ions lithium and bromide. While lithium and bromide are often regarded as conservative tracers, an obstacle to their use is the potential for the target reservoir to have an existing relatively high natural background of these ions that can make distinguishing the amended tracer challenging. In the batch experiment, an aqueous solution of the tracers in a sample of formation water was added to crushed coal. In the core-flooding experiment, an intact coal core was placed inside a temperature-controlled tri-axial pressure vessel. High pressure ISCO pumps are used to control the pressure of the system and the confining pressure to match the reservoir conditions. A solution of tracers in a sample of formation water was flooded through the core at a controlled rate. Two core floods were performed at different flow rates to fully characterize the transport properties. In the batch and core flooding tests, regular liquid samples allowed the concentration to be determined and the mass balances of these tracers to be calculated. The measurements from the core flooding experiments were then modelled using the CXTFIT spreadsheet which provides a comprehensive suite of analytical solutions to the advection dispersion equation. Close fits to the experimental observations were obtained using this approach and the tracer’s transport properties were successfully estimated. The results of the batch and core-flooding experiments showed that 2,6-DFBA is low to non-adsorbing to coal but the second FBA, 2,3,4,5-tetrafluorobenzoic acid (TeFBA), was found to be adsorbing during the batch experiment and retarded during the core flood. In conclusion 2,6-DFBA is suitable as a conservative water tracer for coal seam reservoirs.
- North America > United States (0.47)
- Oceania > Australia > Queensland (0.47)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Organic-Rich Rock > Coal (1.00)
- Geology > Mineral (1.00)
- Oceania > Australia > Queensland > Central Highlands > Bowen Basin (0.99)
- Oceania > Australia > Queensland > Bowen Basin > Fairview Field (0.99)
Well Failure Mechanisms and Conceptualisation of Reservoir-Aquifer Failure Pathways
Wu, B.. (CSIRO Energy) | Doble, R.. (CSIRO Land and Water) | Turnadge, C.. (CSIRO Land and Water) | Mallants, D.. (CSIRO Land and Water)
Abstract This paper presents a critical review of literature on bore and well failure mechanisms and rates, and conceptualisations of probable reservoir-aquifer failure pathways. The objective was to gain a better understanding about bore and well induced inter-aquifer connectivity and the potential consequences to groundwater resources. This comprehensive review included Australian and international literature on onshore conventional oil and gas wells, water bores, coal seam gas wells and coal exploration bores. Failure mechanisms and rates were discussed for the entire well life cycle. Reservoir-aquifer failure pathways were then conceptualised based on the failure mechanisms and risk analyses considering the likelihood of failure and detection, repair and potential impacts on hydrogeology.
- Oceania > Australia (1.00)
- North America > United States > Texas (1.00)
- North America > Canada (0.94)
- Europe (0.93)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Geomechanics (1.00)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Organic-Rich Rock > Coal (0.89)
- Energy > Oil & Gas > Upstream (1.00)
- Government > Regional Government > North America Government > United States Government (0.46)
- Oceania > Australia > Queensland > Surat Basin (0.99)
- Oceania > Australia > Queensland > Central Highlands > Bowen Basin (0.99)
- Oceania > Australia > New South Wales > Surat Basin (0.99)
- (14 more...)
Aquitard and Fault Simulation Approaches for Use in Regional-Scale Assessments of Coal Seam Gas Extraction Impacts
Turnadge, C.. (CSIRO Land and Water) | Mallants, D.. (CSIRO Land and Water) | Peeters, L.. (CSIRO Land and Water)
Abstract Low permeability formations (aquitards) and geological faults play a key role in determining the degree of isolation of groundwater resources (aquifers) from hydrocarbon reservoirs. Reliable assessment of the potential risks associated with groundwater extraction and depressurisation for coal seam gas (CSG) development necessitates accurate characterisation of aquitards and faults and incorporation in regional-scale groundwater flow models. We provide an overview of a range of approaches by which aquitards and faults may be represented in such models. A range of approaches that may be used to upscale and spatially interpolate aquitard hydraulic properties for inclusion in regional-scale groundwater flow models was examined. These methods vary in complexity and in the level of data support required. They range from simple analytical averaging approaches and flux-based methods to complex approaches based on geostatistical characterisation and facies reconstruction. Representations of geological faults and associated fracture systems in groundwater flow models include the common use of transmissibility multipliers to represent faults. For the simulation of groundwater flow in fractured porous media, three categories of methods are available, ranging in complexity from equivalent porous media approaches to discrete fracture network models. A review of regional-scale groundwater flow models developed for Australian CSG impact assessments identified that aquitard heterogeneity and geological faults are typically omitted or highly simplified. For aquitards, simplifications typically involve neglecting the spatial heterogeneity of hydraulic properties through the adoption of spatially uniform values. For geological faults and fault networks, a paucity of data currently exists with regards to both fault architecture (e.g. orientation, location, size and frequency) and flow properties of faults.
- Oceania > Australia > Queensland (0.46)
- North America > United States > California (0.46)
- Oceania > Australia > Western Australia (0.28)
- Geology > Structural Geology > Fault (1.00)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Clastic Rock (0.95)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Organic-Rich Rock > Coal (0.71)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Economic Geology > Petroleum Geology (0.66)
- Oceania > Australia > Queensland > Surat Basin (0.94)
- Oceania > Australia > Queensland > Central Highlands > Bowen Basin (0.94)
- Oceania > Australia > New South Wales > Surat Basin (0.94)
- Oceania > Australia > New South Wales > Gunnedah Basin (0.94)
Use of Geophysics to Support Water Security and Increase Community Awareness on Milingimbi Island, Northern Australia
Banks, Eddie (Flinders University SA) | Batelaan, Okke (Flinders University SA) | Cahill, Kevin (CSIRO Australian Resources Research Centre) | Cook, Peter (CSIRO Land and Water) | Dean, William (Flinders University SA) | Ellis, Joanna (Power and Water Corporation) | Houthuysen, Lauren (Flinders University SA) | Post, Vincent (Flinders University SA)
Summary Over the last thirty years, groundwater pumping to supply water to the community on Milingimbi Island has resulted in declining water levels and increasing groundwater salinity towards the end of the dry season. Recent studies have indicated that that the limited groundwater supply may not be capable of supplying future water needs of the community, which is planned to grow significantly in the next few decades. This study used geophysical and hydrogeological methods to characterise the hydrological system on the island, constrain recharge rates and evaluate the risk of saltwater intrusion. As part of this investigation local community members from the island were engaged in training and use of near-surface geophysical instruments, as well as to share their knowledge so that it could be integrated into the investigation. Introduction For the 1600 Indigenous residents who live in Milingimbi, a remote island off the coast of Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory, drinking water is a scarce and precious resource for which they rely solely on aquifers beneath the island. Studies have shown that, as the population grows (to a projected 2300 residents by 2030), the island’s limited fresh groundwater reserve – which is already vulnerable to saltwater intrusion from the surrounding Arafura Sea – will not be capable of supplying the future water needs of the community. Solutions such as seawater desalination are commonly unfeasible. The annual rainfall is high (1090 mm) but there is uncertainty as to what proportion replenishes the freshwater lens and how much is lost to evapotranspiration and lateral flow to the coast. Groundwater recharge of the freshwater lens takes place during the wet season between November and April with very little rainfall occurring during the dry season. Groundwater monitoring has shown that there has been a notable increase in salinity. Recent drilling investigations identified that there is interconnection between the more saline aquifer that lies beneath the fresher shallower aquifer and that over pumping of the fresh aquifer could result in saltwater migration inland and/or contamination by the more saline aquifer below.
- Oceania > Australia > Northern Territory (0.50)
- Europe > Netherlands > Gelderland > Arnhem (0.24)
Determining Physical Properties of Unconventional Reservoir Rocks: from Laboratory Methods to Pore-Scale Modeling
Gerke, Kirill M. (CSIRO Land and Water) | Vasilyev, Roman V. (Geology Faculty of Lomosnosov Moscow State University, AIR Technology) | Korost, Dmitry V. (Geology Faculty of Lomosnosov Moscow State University) | Karsanina, Marina V. (Institute of Geopsheres Dynamics of Russian Academy of Sciences, AIR Technology) | Balushkina, Natalya S. (Geology Faculty of Lomosnosov Moscow State University, AIR Technology) | Khamidullin, Ruslan (Geology Faculty of Lomosnosov Moscow State University, AIR Technology) | Kalmykov, Georgy A. (Geology Faculty of Lomosnosov Moscow State University, AIR Technology) | Mallants, Dirk (CSIRO Land and Water)
Abstract With the rapid progress of imaging methods it is now possible to obtain detailed rock structure information on different scales, ranging from nanometers to micrometers. Such knowledge facilitates use of pore-scale modeling approaches to predict numerous physical properties based on three dimensional structural data. Pore-scale modeling approaches can simulate different processes in the rock under natural conditions (pressure, temperature, etc.), which are more difficult to simulate in the laboratory. This is especially important for unconventional reservoir rocks such as the Bazhen formation siliceous rocks (black shales) used in this study. Based on X-ray microtomography and SEM imaging we develop a detailed categorization of different types of porosities (including micro, i.e. larger than µm size, and nano, i.e. sub-micron size, porosities) for samples of Bazhen siliceous rocks. Standard pore-scale modeling techniques do not account for different flow regimes within different pore sizes. Thus, we develop a pore-network model with different physics of gas flow for micro- and nanoporosity. High-resolution images are used for stochastic reconstructions of 3D structure and subsequently used for modeling of gas permeability. Resulting permeability values are in a good agreement with gas permeabilities measured for Bazhenov siliceous rocks. Finally, we present a framework to model gas permeability of unconventional reservoir rocks using multi-scale 3D structure information based on microCT scans and high resolution SEM/FIB-SEM imaging techniques.
- North America (0.46)
- Asia > Russia (0.46)
- Europe > Russia (0.29)
- Asia > Russia > West Siberian Basin > Bazhenov Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Texas > Fort Worth Basin > Barnett Field > Barnett Shale Formation (0.98)
- North America > United States > Texas > Permian Basin > Delaware Basin > Mason Field (0.93)
Multi-Physics Laboratory Characterization of Preserved Clay- To Carbonate-Rich Shales
Esteban, Lionel (CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering) | Sarout, Joel (CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering) | Josh, Matthew (CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering) | Clennell, Ben (CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering) | Dewhurst, David (CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering) | Marschall, Paul (NAGRA Switzerland) | Raven, Mark (CSIRO Land and Water)
Summary Preserved shale samples of widely varying clay and carbonate content were recovered from a deep geothermal well near the village of Schlattingen in the Molasse Basin of northern Switzerland. The cored borehole section comprised various stratigraphic sequences from Upper Triassic to Lower Jurassic at depths between 725 and 989 m below surface. A laboratory multi-physics assessment was conducted to characterize their mineralogy, texture, porosity distribution between clay-bound water and weak-bound water, broad frequency electrical response, and their geomechanical properties. Despite some mineralogical variations within the sample set, the porosity and rock-fluid water interactions depend on the pore size distribution while the geomechanical and electrical responses are mostly controlled by the clay/carbonate content.
- Geology > Mineral > Silicate > Phyllosilicate (1.00)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Geomechanics (1.00)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Clastic Rock > Mudrock > Shale (0.73)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Reservoir Characterization > Exploration, development, structural geology (0.48)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Formation Evaluation & Management > Open hole/cased hole log analysis (0.47)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Unconventional and Complex Reservoirs > Shale gas (0.42)
- (2 more...)
Rock Physics And Petrophysics Testing of Shales From the Canning Basin, Western Australia
Piane, Claudio Delle (CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering) | Esteban, Lionel (CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering) | Dewhurst, David (CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering) | Clennell, Ben (CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering) | Raven, Mark (CSIRO Land and Water)
ABSTRACT Shales from the Ordovician Bongabinni and Goldwyer Formations were recovered from an onshore well drilled in the Canning Basin (Western Australia) at depths ranging between 1505 and 1852 meters. The clay-rich samples were characterized with a multi-disciplinary approach aimed at describing their mineralogical and water content, their porosity and rock physics signature, as well as their geomechanical properties. Despite their chronological proximity and common geological history, the two formations show marked differences in their overall petrophysical and geomechanical behaviour reflecting their different original depositional settings.
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Clastic Rock > Mudrock > Shale (1.00)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Geomechanics (1.00)
Prediction of Shale Mechanical Properties From Global And Local Empirical Correlations
Dewhurst, David N. (CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering) | Sarout, Joel (CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering) | Piane, Claudio Delle (CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering) | Siggins, Anthony F. (CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering) | Raven, Mark D. (CSIRO Land and Water) | Kuila, Utpalendu (Colorado School of Mines)
INTRODUCTION Summary Triaxial testing was used on a suite of shales of varied age and geographic distribution in order to ascertain static and dynamic elastic properties, strength and frictional response. The shales were also fully characterized in terms of composition, fabric elements, standard and exotic physical and petrophysical properties, including dielectrics and nuclear magnetic resonance. Empirical correlations were made between static mechanical properties and the other properties measured in order to determine empirical strength correlations for a global and a local shale population. For the global population, dynamic elastic properties were poor empirical predictors of shale strength. Better correlations could be obtained with physical properties such as cation exchange capacity and porosity. Good porosity-velocity and impedance correlations were obtained however from the global shale population. Dynamic properties were better predictors of strength and static elastic properties in a local shale population where the rocks have shared similar compactional and diagenetic histories. Shale properties are important from a petroleum industry perspective as inputs for interpretation of seismic response in both 3D and 4D, with regard to wellbore stability and most recently as reservoirs with the advent of shale gas. However, shale cores are rarely taken due to cost of acquisition and the perception that little value can be gained from knowledge of their properties. However, a recent study by Stjern et al., (2003) indicated savings of ~US$2.5M on one well though knowledge of shale properties and given that the field had a further 50 wells to drill, total savings would be in excess of US$100M. Horsrud (2001) derived a number of empirical correlations to elastic and strength properties of rocks from extensive rock physics testing on North Sea shale cores. Primary inputs to these correlations were porosity and P-wave velocity, across different frequencies, including sonic wireline, sonic logging while drilling and ultrasonics on core plugs and cuttings. Horsrud (2001) notes that such correlations can be complicated by stress history, geological history, pore pressure and compositional issues. He also notes that friction coefficient does not generally correlate with the more easily measured properties and also rightly questions the validity of trying to correlate dynamic elastic properties with properties relating to mechanical failure. Intuitively however, rock strength can be tied to compaction, i.e. rocks get stronger the deeper they are buried, be this by mechanical or chemical mechanisms. Lal (1999) developed a number of correlations between compressional wave velocity and rock strength, including friction coefficient and observed that of the three factors they considered that accounted for shale strength correlations, clay mineralogy, clay content and compaction, the primary controlling factor was the degree of compaction (characterised in terms of porosity, bulk density and velocity). Coates and Denoo (1981) derived an expression for unconfined compressive strength (UCS) from commonly measured wireline log parameters, which was supplanted by Bruce’s (1990) method, also using correlations between wireline log properties and UCS and these were further used by Collins (2002) in a study of wellbore stability in shales in the North Sea.
- Europe > United Kingdom > North Sea (0.46)
- Europe > Norway > North Sea (0.46)
- Europe > North Sea (0.46)
- (3 more...)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Clastic Rock > Mudrock > Shale (1.00)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Geomechanics (1.00)
- Geophysics > Seismic Surveying (1.00)
- Geophysics > Borehole Geophysics (1.00)
- Oceania > Australia > Western Australia > Officer Basin > Kutjara structure Formation (0.99)
- Oceania > Australia > South Australia > Officer Basin > Kutjara structure Formation (0.99)
- Europe > Norway > Norwegian Sea > Halten Terrace > Block 6507/8 > Heidrun Field > Åre Formation (0.99)
- (7 more...)
Summary Shales are the most abundant sedimentary rock type, and have a very important role in oil and gas drilling operations, where they make up for a great part of all the drilled sections. Few experimental are available reporting their mechanical and rock physics characteristics. This study aims at characterizing a preserved shale recovered from the Northwest shelf of Australia in terms of composition, microstructure, mechanical and rock physics properties, plus evolution of ultrasonic anisotropy under triaxial loading. Preserved shale specimens cored normal and parallel to bedding were tested to evaluate the evolution of the ultrasonic wave velocities with increasing stress conditions and how anisotropy is affected by different loading angle with respect to the bedding plane. An array of ultrasonic transducers allowed us to measure five independent wave velocities on a single core plug, which were used to calculate the full elastic tensor of the shale assuming it to be a transversely isotropic medium. Results indicate that P- and S-wave velocities vary monotonically with increasing mean effective stress. The shale has small intrinsic P-wave anisotropy which tends to increase up to 5% with increasing mean effective stress, while S-wave anisotropy decreases from ~40% to ~30% over the same stress increment. Intrinsic anisotropy is related to the initial composition and fabric of the sediment and the presence of microfratures, while changes in elastic anisotropy result from the applied stresses, their orientation to the rock fabric and the degree of stress anisotropy. Introduction Despite many years of research and their important industrial implications, the elastic properties of shales are poorly understood. In particular, the monitoring of elastic wave velocities and anisotropy in shales under loading is relatively uncommon, while it would be helpful in resolving ambiguities in seismic profile interpretation and seismic signature of fluids. Most of the experimental determinations of elastic wave velocities on shale samples have been performed under hydrostatic conditions (Best and Katsube, 1995; Hornby, 1998; Johnston and Christensen, 1995; Johnston and Toksöz, 1980; Jones and Wang, 1981; Stanley and Christensen, 2001). However, elastic wave velocity measurements on shale are reported by Yin (1992) under triaxial and polyaxial loading, and by Podio et al. (1968) under uniaxial loading. Many of the laboratory studies are conducted without control of pore pressure or in undersaturated conditions not reflecting the in-situ settings of the sediments. Only few studies (e.g. Dewhurst and Siggins, 2006) report elastic wave velocity data on saturated shale samples under triaxial loading. This study investigates the acoustic response of a Northwest shelf (NWS) shale to changing stress conditions. The shale is first described in terms of texture and microstructure as well as composition so that its fabric elements can be linked to the measured elastic parameters. Methods Consolidated undrained multi-stage triaxial tests were performed on preserved shale samples using a Terratek triaxial testing machine (described by Dewhurst and Siggins, 2006). The equipment comprises a high stiffness load frame, a pressure vessel, and independent stepping motor pumps for cell and pore pressure control, as well as for axial load.
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Clastic Rock > Mudrock > Shale (1.00)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Geomechanics (1.00)
- Geophysics > Seismic Surveying > Seismic Processing (0.55)
- Geophysics > Seismic Surveying > Seismic Modeling > Velocity Modeling (0.35)
- North America > Canada > Saskatchewan > Williston Basin (0.99)
- North America > Canada > Manitoba > Williston Basin (0.99)
- North America > Canada > Alberta > Williston Basin (0.99)
Geomechanical and Lithological Controls on Top Seal Integrity on the Australian Northwest Shelf
Dewhurst, David N. (CSIRO Petroleum) | Hennig, Allison L. (CSIRO Petroleum) | Bailey, Wayne (CSIRO Petroleum) | Kovack, Gillian E. (Australian School of Petroleum) | Kaldi, John G. (Australian School of Petroleum) | Raven, Mark D. (CSIRO Land and Water)
ABSTRACT: The Carnarvon Basin on the Northwest Shelf of Australia is one of the region's most productive hydrocarbon provinces. The Muderong Shale forms the regional top seal over much of this province and indeed in excess of 90% of the commercial discoveries so far made in the Carnarvon Basin lie at base Muderong level. However, top seal breach is an exploration issue in the area, illustrated by the presence of seismic leakage indicators, palaeocolumns, post-Muderong shows and occasional post-Muderong fields. Some of the seismic leakage indicators suggest trap breach is very recent. Seal capacities to gas vary from ~70m to >600m and generally suggest good capillary sealing properties. Geomechanical testing of Muderong Shale core reveal it is a weak rock, commensurate with its high clay (particularly mixed-layer illite-smectite) content. Laboratory generated failure envelopes were compared with in situ stress and pore pressure conditions, suggesting that intact Muderong Shale top seal is not generally at risk of hydrofracture in the current day stress field, but that pre-existing faults in certain orientations are likely to be critically stressed, which fits with seismic observations of recent leakage. However, diagenetic changes such as the smectite-illite transformation occur at depth below ~1.5 km and are shown to increase capillary seal capacity and are likely also to affect geomechanical properties, strengthening the top seal through increasing both friction coefficient and cohesive strength. 1. INTRODUCTION The northern Carnarvon Basin is the southernmost of a series of sedimentary basins that make up the Australian North West Shelf. It is Australia's largest oil and gas producing region, hosting world-class giant gas fields in the outboard regions of the basin [1]. Although many traps contain more than one phase of hydrocarbon, in general, the area may be divided into two main geographical provinces: an inboard oil province that occupies the southern and eastern parts of the basin, and an outboard, gas/condensate province lying along the western margin [2]. Almost all (97%) of the hydrocarbon resources on the North West Shelf are sealed beneath the regionally extensive Muderong Shale [1]. This is a laterally extensive and continuous sealing unit, occurring between depths of ~0.5 km and 3.5 km with thickness varying from 5m to >800m. It is extremely fine-grained and comprises dominantly mixed layer illite-smectite, quartz and kaolinite. These depth and hence temperature variations indicate that compaction and diagenesis are likely to affect both physical and mechanical properties of this top seal. While mechanical compaction reduces pore throat size [3] and strengthens the rock, the effects of the smectite-illite transformation, are as yet unclear. This reaction is controlled by temperature, both rock and solution chemistry as well as time [4]. Previous studies [5,6,7] have suggested a number of mechanisms for which pore-size reduction has occurred as a result of diagenetic mineral growth and alteration. However, the role of the smectite-to-illite transformation on seal capacity and integrity is not well constrained, although it has been suggested to play a role in overpressure development [6].
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Clastic Rock > Mudrock > Shale (1.00)
- Geology > Mineral > Silicate > Phyllosilicate (1.00)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Geomechanics (1.00)
- Geology > Petroleum Play Type > Unconventional Play > Shale Play > Shale Gas Play (0.92)
- Oceania > Australia > Western Australia > North West Shelf > Muderong Shale Formation (0.99)
- Oceania > Australia > Western Australia > Carnarvon Basin > Exmouth Basin (0.93)