Not enough data to create a plot.
Try a different view from the menu above.
Results
Assessment of the Production Gain From Refractured Wells in the Major Shale Plays in the United States
Shammam, F. O. (Missouri University of Science and Technology) | Alkinani, H. H. (Missouri University of Science and Technology) | Al-Hameedi, A. T. (Missouri University of Science and Technology / American University of Ras Al Khaimah) | Dunn-Norman, S. (Missouri University of Science and Technology) | Al-Alwani, M. A. (Missouri University of Science and Technology)
Abstract Over the past decade, the oil industry witnessed an expansion in the refracturing activates instead of drilling and fracturing new wells. This work aims to test the efficiency of the refracturing treatments by analyzing the post refracturing production trend of wells in the most active shale plays in the United States (Bakken, Niobrara, Marcellus, Permian, Eagle Ford, Barnett, and Haynesville). FracFocus was used to collect data of more than 130,000 wells in the United States completed between 2012 and 2019. In this study, 39 refractured wells (Barnett wells were vertical, Niobrara wells were deviated, and the other shale plays were horizontal) in the created database were further processed by adding their production data to analyze the production data of the refractured wells and test the efficiency of refracturing as a stimulation technique to increase production. In terms of production gain, the results showed that the selected wells in the Eagle Ford shale play yielded the highest production gain from refracturing with a 174% increase of production post refracturing followed by Bakken (160%), Marcellus (133%), Barnett (46%), Niobrara (43%), Haynesville (34%), and Permian (32%), respectively. Overall, the highest production gain from refracturing is achieved during the second month after refracturing and the decrease of production gain starts during the third month after refracturing. On the other hand, the results showed that there are more factors than formation type and perforation length that need to be considered to predict the production response of refracturing as some wells showed a high gain during the first three months after refracturing, while other wells showed a lower production gain during the first three months after refracturing. Moreover, the refracturing operations have shown a production increase in vertical, deviated, and horizontal wells. Introduction Since the oil price drop in 2011, refracturing old wells and producing from shale reserves have become a new trend in the oil industry in the United States. Refracturing operations aim to maximize production through refracturing old fractured wells (Jacobs, 2015). The technology itself is not new and it has been known and active in the United States since the 1970s. However, the process of refracturing horizontally drilled multi-staged wells is a new technology that started to appear in the industry back in 2011 (Dutta, 2017). Since the oil price drop in 2011, refracturing shale reserves started to emerge in the industry due to the size of the unconventional reserves and the economic viability of producing through refracturing (King, 2014). To highlight the economic efficiency of refracturing, when comparing the cost of refracturing an existent well and fracturing a new well in the Eagle Ford, it was found that the cost of producing through a refracture is 1 to 1.5 million dollars, while the profit of producing through a new fracture is estimated to be 2 to 4 million dollars (Fu et al., 2017). Refracturing operations have some drawdowns associated with the availability of data on the surface and their rate of success is determined by many factors (Yanfang & Salehi, 2014). Therefore, it is important to consider all the associated factors of success of a refracturing operation and include a refrac plan in the initial stage of the well development phase to get a high return of investment in a short period (Dutta, 2017). One of the main factors of the refracturing operation success is the formation of the refrac. The refracture formation depends on the pressure distribution around the pre-existent fracture and the cluster spacing between the fracture stages. In some cases, a new fracture would be initiated and reaching more of the un-depleted spots in the reservoir, which dramatically increases the production of the well. However, in other cases, the refracture would be initiated through reopening the initial fracture (Fu et al., 2017). All these factors contributing to the refracture formation can lead to a high level of uncertainty that requires an intensive analysis of data before starting a refracturing operation.
- Geology > Petroleum Play Type > Unconventional Play > Shale Play (1.00)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Clastic Rock > Mudrock > Shale (0.60)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Laramie Basin > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > DJ (Denver-Julesburg) Basin > Codell Formation (0.99)
- (57 more...)
Naturally Occurring Isotopic Tracers Provide Insight into Hydraulic Fracturing Flowback and Horizontal Well Clean-Up Dynamics
Travers, Patrick (Dolan Integration Group) | Burke, Ben (HighPoint Resources) | Rowe, Aryn (HighPoint Resources) | Hodgetts, Stephen (Dolan Integration Group) | Dolan, Michael (Dolan Integration Group)
Abstract Scope: The management, treatment and disposal of hydraulic fracturing flowback fluids and produced water presents a major challenge to operators. Though the volumes of water are tracked closely during operations, the sources of that water are not well understood. The objective of this study is to apply a cost effective and proven technique, stable isotope analysis, along with an extensive sampling program (n>1,500 samples) to describe the contributions of variable water sources through completions, flowback and the production lifecycle of multiple horizontal, hydraulically fractured wells in the Denver Basin, Colorado. Methods: The water stable isotopes of hydrogen (H and H) and oxygen (O and O) are conservative tracers and particularly advantageous because they occur naturally in these systems and rely on well-established scientific and analytical techniques. Sample collection is simple and does not require specialized equipment or operational downtime. 80 horizontal, hydraulically fractured wells completed in the Cretaceous Niobrara or Codell Formations were selected for this study. More than 1,500 samples were collected and analyzed in total, including: baseline samples of the source water used to stimulate the well, time series samples collected at daily or semi-daily intervals during the early weeks of flowback, and samples collected several months after the wells were brought on production. Samples of produced water were also collected from legacy wells in the field as well as offset wells being monitored for frac hits during completions. Results: Samples of the near surface and shallow aquifer source water collected prior to hydraulic fracturing fell on or near the global meteoric water line (GMWL) as defined by Craig (1961). This isotopic signature is expected for modern water in aquifers charged by precipitation. In contrast, samples collected during flowback and production were significantly enriched in H and O. Furthermore, the magnitude of the isotopic difference between the source and flowback water increased with time until equilibrating after several months. This equilibrated composition is consistent for Niobrara and Codell wells in the field, as well as legacy wells sampled and consequently is hypothesized to be indicative of native formation water. The study did find exceptions, particularly with wells known to be connected to major fault or fracture networks. These samples deviated from typical formation water signatures, potentially indicating the migration of deeper sourced fluids or the vertical mixing of shallower fluids with Cretaceous waters. Significance: The scale of this study is unique in the literature and provides novel and comprehensive insight into the dynamics of flowback and the sources of produced water in the Denver Basin. This study demonstrates that these data can clearly differentiate water injected during stimulation from native formation waters, as well as track the magnitude and duration of well cleanup. It can also identify wells that may be producing water with a unique composition due to fluid migration through faults or fracture networks or due to nearby well communication.
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Laramie Basin > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > DJ (Denver-Julesburg) Basin > Codell Formation (0.99)
- (47 more...)
Dimensionless Section-Level Cumulative Oil Vs. Pumped Fluid Normalization Plot in Unconventional Development
Rosenhagen, Nicolas M. (Colorado School of Mines) | Nash, Steven D. (Anadarko Petroleum Corporation) | Dobbs, Walter C. (Anadarko Petroleum Corporation) | Tanner, Kevin V. (Anadarko Petroleum Corporation)
Abstract The volume of stimulation fluid injected during hydraulic fracturing is a key performance driver in the horizontal development of the Niobrara formation in the Denver-Julesburg (DJ) Basin, Colorado. Oil production per well generally increases with stimulation fluid volume. Often, operators normalize both production and fluid volume based on stimulated lateral length and investigate relationships using "per-ft" variables. However, data from well-based approaches commonly display such wide distributions that no useful relationships can be inferred. To improve data correlations, multivariate analysis normalizes for parameters such as thermal maturity, depth, depletion, proppant intensity, drawdown, geology and completion design. Although advancements in computing power have decreased cycle times for multivariate analysis, preparing a clean dataset for thousands of wells remains challenging. A proposed analytical method using publicly available data allows interpreters to see through the noise and find informative correlations. Using a data set of over 5000 wells, we aggregate cumulative oil production and stimulation fluid volumes to a per-section basis then normalize by hydrocarbon pore volume (HCPV) per section. Dimensionless section-level Cumulative Oil versus Stimulation Fluid Plots ("Normalization" or "N-Plot") present data distributions sufficiently well-defined to provide an interpretation and design basis of well spacing and stimulation fluid volumes for multi-well development. When coupled with geologic characterization, the trends guide further refinement of development optimization and well performance predictions. Two example applications using the N-Plot are introduced. The first involves construction of predictive production models and associated evaluation of alternative development scenarios with different combinations of well spacing and completion fluid intensity. The second involves "just-in-time" modification of fluid intensity for drilled but uncompleted wells (DUC's) to optimize cost-forward project economics in an evolving commodity price environment.
- North America > United States > Wyoming (1.00)
- North America > United States > Colorado (1.00)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Clastic Rock (0.47)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Stratigraphy (0.46)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Geomechanics (0.46)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Laramie Basin > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > DJ (Denver-Julesburg) Basin > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- (48 more...)
Abstract In some basins, large scale development of unconventional stacked-target plays requires early election of well targeting and spacing. Changes to the initial well construction framework can take years to implement due to lead times for land, permitting, and corporate planning. Over time, as operators wish to fine tune their development plans, completion design flexibility represents a powerful force for optimization. Hydraulic fracturing treatment plans may be adjusted and customized close to the time of investment. With a practical approach that takes advantage of physics-based modeling and data analysis, we demonstrate how to create a high-confidence, integrated well spacing and completion design strategy for both frontier and mature field development. The Dynamic Stimulated Reservoir Volume (DSRV) workflow forms the backbone of the physics-based approach, constraining simulations against treatment, flow-back, production, and pressure-buildup (PBU) data. Depending on the amount of input data available and mechanisms investigated, one can invoke various levels of rigor in coupling geomechanics and fluid flow โ ranging from proxies to full iterative coupling. To answer spacing and completions questions in the Denver Basin, also known as the Denver-Julesburg (DJ) Basin, we extend this modeling workflow to multi-well, multi-target, and multi-variate space. With proper calibration, we are able generate production performance predictions across the field for a range of subsurface, well spacing, and completion scenarios. Results allow us to co-optimize well spacing and completion size for this multi-layer column. Insights about the impacts of geology and reservoir conditions highlight the potential for design customization across the play. Results are further validated against actual data using an elegant multi-well surveillance technique that better illuminates design space. Several elements of subsurface characterization potentially impact the interactions among design variables. In particular, reservoir fluid property variations create important effects during injection and production. Also, both data analysis and modeling support a key relationship involving well spacing and the efficient creation of stimulated reservoir volumes. This relationship provides a lever that can be utilized to improve value based on corporate needs and commodity price. We introduce these observations to be further tested in the field and models.
- North America > United States > Wyoming (1.00)
- North America > United States > Colorado (1.00)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Geomechanics (1.00)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Clastic Rock > Mudrock (0.47)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Laramie Basin > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > DJ (Denver-Julesburg) Basin > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- (22 more...)
Abstract This paper presents construction and validation of a reservoir model for the Niobrara and Codell Formations in Wattenberg Field of the Denver-Julesburg Basin. Characterization of Niobrara-Codell system is challenging because of the geologic complexity resulting from the presence of numerous faults. Because of extensive reservoir stimulation via multi-stage hydraulic fracturing, a dual-porosity model was adopted to represent the various reservoir complexities using data from geology, geophysics, petrophysics, well completion and production. After successful history matching two-and-half years of reservoir performance, the localized presence of high intensity macrofractures and resulting evolution of gas saturation was correlated with the time-lapse seismic and microseismic interpretations. The agreement between the evolved free gas saturation in the fracture system and the seismic anomalies and microseismic events pointed to the viability of the dual-porosity modeling as a tool for forecasting and future reservoir development, such as re-stimulation, infill drilling, and enhanced oil recovery strategies.
- North America > United States > Colorado > Weld County (0.37)
- North America > United States > Colorado > Denver County (0.37)
- North America > United States > Colorado > Larimer County (0.27)
- (3 more...)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock (0.70)
- Geology > Structural Geology > Fault (0.69)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Geomechanics (0.46)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Laramie Basin > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > DJ (Denver-Julesburg) Basin > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- (13 more...)
Abstract Unconventional completions in North America have seen a paradigm shift in volumes of proppant pumped since 2014. There is a clear noticeable trend in both oil prices and proppant volumes โ thanks to low product and service costs that accompanied the oil price crash in early 2015. As the industry continues to recover, operators are reevaluating completion designs to understand if these proppant volumes are beyond what is optimal. This paper analyzes trends in completion sizes and types across all major unconventional oil and gas plays in the US since 2011 and tracks their impact on well productivity. Completion and production data since 2011 from more than 70,000 horizontal wells in seven major basins (Gulf Coast, Permian, Appalachian, Anadarko, Haynesville, Williston and Denver Julesburg basins) and 11 major oil/gas producing formations were analyzed to examine developments in proppant and fluid volumes. Average concentration of proppant per gallon of fluid pumped was used to understand transitional trends in fracturing fluid types with time. Production performance indicators such as First month, Best 3 or Best 12 months of oil and gas production were mapped against completion volumes to evaluate if there are added economic advantages to pumping larger designs. In general, all major basins have seen progressive improvements in average well performance since 2011, with the Permian Basin showing the highest improvement, increasing from an average first-six-months oil production of 25,000 bbl in 2011 to 75,000 bbl in 2017. The Gulf Coast basin, where the Eagle Ford formation is located, has seen a 6-fold increase in proppant volumes pumped per foot of lateral since 2011 while the Permian and Appalachian basins hit peak proppant volumes in 2015 and 2016 respectively. In Permian and Eagleford wells, higher proppant volumes in general have resulted in better production up to a certain concentration. In Williston and Denver basins, most operators are moving away from gelled fluids, and reduced average proppant concentration per fluid volume pumped shows inclination toward hybrid or slickwater designs. While some of these observations are tied to reservoir quality, proppant volumes have begun to peak as operators have either reached an optimal point or are in the process of reducing volumes. Demand for proppant is expected to nearly double by 2020. As oil prices continue to recover, well AFEs continue to increase, despite multiple efforts to improve capital efficiency. The need for enhanced fracture conductivity and extended half-lengths on EURs are been discussed by combining actual observed production data and sensitivities using calibrated production models. The industry is moving toward large-volume slickwater fracturing operations using smaller proppants, but he operating landscape is expected to see a correction when such designs become less economical.
- North America > United States > Texas (1.00)
- North America > United States > Oklahoma (1.00)
- North America > United States > North Dakota (1.00)
- (4 more...)
- Phanerozoic > Paleozoic > Permian (1.00)
- Phanerozoic > Paleozoic > Devonian (0.93)
- Phanerozoic > Paleozoic > Carboniferous > Mississippian (0.69)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Geomechanics (1.00)
- Geology > Petroleum Play Type > Unconventional Play > Shale Play (0.94)
- Geology > Structural Geology > Tectonics (0.69)
- (2 more...)
- Energy > Oil & Gas > Upstream (1.00)
- Government > Regional Government > North America Government > United States Government (0.46)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Laramie Basin > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > West Virginia > Appalachian Basin > Marcellus Shale Formation (0.99)
- (97 more...)
Abstract Accelerating the learning curve in the development of the Vaca Muerta utilizing lessons learned in North American unconventional resource plays is the focus of this paper. Reducing completion costs while maintaining high productivity has become a key objective in the current low-price environment. Completion diagnostics have been demonstrated to optimize stimulation and completion parameters that have shaped successful field developments. The paper reviews stimulation diagnostic data from wells completed in the Tuscaloosa Marine Shale, Eagle Ford, Wolfcamp and Niobrara shale formations. Case histories are presented in which proppant and fluid tracers were successfully employed in completion optimization processes. In the examples presented, diagnostic results were used to assess the stimulation of high productivity intervals within a target zone, evaluate various completion methods, and optimize stage and cluster spacing. The diagnostic data were compared with post-frac production rates in an effort to correlate completion changes with well performance. Results presented compare first, engineered perforations versus conventional geometrically spaced perforations to drive up effectiveness in cluster stimulation. Second, new chemistries, such as nanosurfactant, versus conventional chemistries to cut either completion cost or prove their profitability. Third, employing an effective choke management strategy to improve well productivity. Last, as in any stacked pay, determining fracture height growth in order to optimize well density, well spacing, field development and ultimately the recovery of the natural resources. Completion effectiveness is shown to be improved by landing laterals in high productivity target intervals, increasing proppant coverage across the lateral by utilizing the most effective completion methods, optimizing cluster spacing and decreasing the number of stages to reduce completion costs while achieving comparable production rates. Cluster treatment efficiency (CTE), in particular, has become a critical metric when optimizing hydraulic fracturing treatment designs based on current and future well densities. It can be used to rationalize well performance as well as to identify possible candidates for a refrac program. Using completion diagnostics, successful completion techniques were identified that led to production enhancements and cost reductions in prolific plays such as the Tuscaloosa Marine Shale, Eagle Ford, Wolfcamp and Niobrara.
- North America > United States > Wyoming (1.00)
- North America > United States > Texas (1.00)
- North America > United States > Colorado (1.00)
- North America > United States > Nebraska (0.88)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Clastic Rock > Mudrock > Shale (1.00)
- Geology > Petroleum Play Type > Unconventional Play (1.00)
- South America > Argentina > Patagonia > Neuquรฉn > Neuquen Basin > Vaca Muerta Shale Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Uinta Basin (0.99)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- (30 more...)
Origin, Detection, Involvement in Hydraulic Stimulation and Consequences for Field Development of Large-Scale Structural Lineaments in the Marcellus and Duvernay Plays
Stephenson, Ben (Shell Canada Energy) | Galan, Earl (Shell Canada Energy) | Fay, Mathew (Shell Canada Energy) | Savitski, Alexei (Shell International Exploration & Production Inc.) | Bai, Taixu (SEPCO)
Abstract The evidence for large-scale structural features (lineaments/faults) affecting a hydraulic stimulation is much more compelling than for small-scale features (natural fractures). Large-scale features are weaker and have similar dimensions to a typical hydraulic fracture. But is it beneficial to stimulate these features and what are the potential consequences? An analysis of structural features from the Marcellus and Duvernay formations has been undertaken, with static characterization (seismic, image logs and outcrops), dynamic characterization (fracture diagnostics and well performance) and geomechanical modeling; ultimately to understand whether, in the presence of structural features, any field development decisions might get impacted. Maps of structural features supported by seismic attributes are commonly challenged as to what they physically represent. Outcrop analogues demonstrate how strain is distributed in intrinsically layered media, such as shale. Therefore a shale may preferentially fold above a fault. Folding may result in strain partitioning, with bedding-parallel slip (shear) limiting the vertical extent and opening (dilation) of discrete fracture planes. Lineaments in Marcellus folds are either broad zones of axial kink-band deformation associated with higher bedding dips, or planar zones comprising reactivated natural fractures forming an inherited en echelon fabric. Lineaments in the Duvernay are zones of distributed deformation commonly associated with a subtle flexure above faults. A novel interpretation method of microseismic events in time reveals how lineaments are involved during a hydraulic fracture treatment driven by changes in net pressure. Hydraulic half-length is limited when fracs intersect a lineament at a high angle. This was confirmed by geomechanical modelling showing that lineament dilation prevents the opposite branch of the bi-wing frac from propagating. Diagnostics from plays with lineaments oriented close to maximum horizontal stress indicate that the length-scale of hydraulic communication is increased, because tensile reactivation is facilitated. Tracer data have been used to calibrate the conductive length-scale of these features in the sub-surface and also confirm that external fluids may be brought into the well-bore from underlying formations. Whether a lineament helps well productivity depends partly whether it is โcontainedโ or โuncontainedโ within the over-pressured formation. In the uncontained case, stimulation efficiency and enhanced risk of external fluids needs careful monitoring. In the contained case, stimulation of a lineament may enhance productivity of a stand-alone well, but conversely this same lineament may exacerbate the Parent-Child impact once adjacent wells are drilled. A potential mitigation measure may be to modify the proppant or stimulation design to screen-out these high conductivity (or leak-off) pathways, rather than trying to stimulate them, thereby enhancing near-wellbore complexity. Paradoxically, the best way to handle large-scale structural lineaments may be to stimulate them in order to shut them off.
- North America > Canada > Alberta (1.00)
- Asia > Middle East (0.93)
- North America > United States > Texas (0.93)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Clastic Rock > Mudrock > Shale (1.00)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Geomechanics (1.00)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > DJ (Denver-Julesburg) Basin (0.99)
- North America > United States > West Virginia > Appalachian Basin > Marcellus Shale Formation (0.99)
- (40 more...)
ABSTRACT: Heterogeneity of an unconventional reservoir is one of the main factors affecting production. Well performance depends on the size and efficiency of the interconnected fracture โplumbing systemโ, as influenced by multistage hydraulic fracturing. A complex, interconnected natural fracture network can significantly increase the size of stimulated reservoir volume, provide additional surface area contact and enhance permeability. The purpose of this study was to characterize the natural fracture patterns occurring in the unconventional Niobrara reservoir and to determine the drivers that influenced fracture trends and distributions. Highly fractured areas/fracture swarm corridors were identified and integrated into a reservoir model though DFN (Discrete Fracture Network) application for further prediction of reservoir performance using reservoir simulations. The predictive capability of DFN models can aid in improved reservoir performance and hydrocarbon production through optimized well spacing, re-frac stage locations planning for existing wells as well as completion strategies design for new wells.
- Geology > Rock Type (0.77)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Geomechanics (0.74)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Laramie Basin > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > DJ (Denver-Julesburg) Basin (0.99)
- (9 more...)
Abstract Classic microseismic techniques have been unable to adequately resolve many of the questions that have been asked with respect to reservoir stimulation and production in the Bakken and Niobrara unconventional resource plays as they have matured over the last few years. This has become evident especially in relation to the infill drilling and restimulation phases of field development. In support of efforts to design efficient continued development of operations in these areas, Whiting Oil and Gas has utilized a different, but related, technology to enhance understanding of the subsurface environment during and after reservoir stimulation treatments. We present two separate field examples of a novel reservoir monitoring technology that utilizes microseismic surface geophone arrays and seismic emission tomography (SET) methodologies to directly image both natural and hydraulically induced fracture systems. Tomographic fracture imaging (TFI) was developed with the goal of directly identifying and mapping active induced or natural fracture systems, as opposed to inferring them from a population of microseismic hypocenters as is done in classical microseismic data acquisition and analysis. Examples shown here consist of results from a purpose-designed array intended to monitor the stimulation efficiencies of three wellbores on a single Niobrara drill pad that was completed within a very short timeframe, and the results of a much larger reservoir-scale study showing the 4D reservoir effects of field production over a nine-month period by the TFI reprocessing of legacy microseismic data in the Bakken. These examples represent clear empirical evidence that the TFI technique is effective in detecting and localizing active fracture networks that are highly correlative to other wellbore data, even though much remains to be researched about the exact mechanisms involved in the generation of seismic energy within fracture networks.
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Geomechanics (0.68)
- Geology > Structural Geology > Tectonics > Plate Tectonics (0.68)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Wyoming > Laramie Basin > Niobrara Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > North Dakota > Sanish Field > Bakken Shale Formation (0.99)
- (10 more...)