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This page considers two equilibrium conditions: * The point at which, at a given temperature and pressure, water becomes saturated in either hydrocarbon vapors or hydrocarbon liquids and forms a separate fluid phase. Both water and hydrocarbon dewpoints are represented as the maximum solubility of each phase in the other. Prediction of hydrate formation is covered in Predicting hydrate formation. BecauseF 2, two intensive variables are needed to specify the system. At a given temperature and pressure, the user can determine the saturated water content of gases, the point at which a liquid water phase will precipitate.
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Hydrates are white, solid, ice-like substances that form at elevated pressures and low temperatures because of an interaction between a liquid water phase and light natural light gas components. The water associated with hydrocarbon production might be in the form of vapor associated with natural gas. Free water might exist in reservoir conditions and travel along with oil and gas. Hydrate formation is unfavorable in most cases since it represents a challenge for flow assurance and production system integrity. With time, the formation, deposition, and adsorption of hydrates on the internal surfaces of pipes, wellbore, processing facilities, and piping components restricts and disrupts hydrocarbon production, and in worst cases, the production ceases.
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Oil, gas, water, steel, and rock are not always chemically inert under oil/gas production conditions. Their mutual interactions, induced in part by changes in pressure and temperature, can lead to the accumulation of solids, both organic and inorganic (scaling) within the production system, as well as deterioration of the metals that the fluids contact (corrosion). This chapter discusses these effects in terms of root causes, the operational difficulties resulting, and the principles/methods that have been used to cope. Case histories are not presented in any detail, but references are given to specific papers dealing with cause/effect/cure examples. It is assumed that the reader is not an expert in things chemical but does have a passing acquaintance with the jargon of chemistry and with some of the general principles underlying chemical processes.
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Hydrates are a possibility in oil/gas exploration, production, transportation, or processing, which involves water and molecules smaller than n-pentane. When small ( 9 Å) nonpolar molecules contact water at ambient temperatures (typically 100 F) and moderate pressures (typically 180 psia), a water crystal form may appear--a clathrate hydrate. These individual polyhedra then combine to form specific crystalline lattices. Such solids can be formed with N2, H2S, CO2, C1, C2, C3, and iso-butane. Larger molecules like n-butane and cyclopentane require the presence of some smaller molecules.
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Hydrates are a possibility in oil/gas exploration, production, transportation, or processing, which involves water and molecules smaller thann-pentane. When small ( 9 Å) nonpolar molecules contact water at ambient temperatures (typically 100 F) and moderate pressures (typically 180 psia), a water crystal form may appear--a clathrate hydrate. Hydrate structures and formation conditions (pressures, temperatures, and compositions) are specified in the chapter on phase behavior of water hydrocarbon systems in the General Engineering volume of thisHandbook. The purpose of this chapter is to summarize hydrate applications in the energy industry. Readers who wish a more detailed understanding are directed to recent hydrate monographs (Several available sources[1][2][3][4]) for research understanding or to the abbreviated process handbook for case studies, calculation examples, and software.[5] In the petroleum industry, there are four clathrate hydrate technological areas: safety and flow assurance in oil/gas drilling, production, and transmission lines; stranded-gas transmission to market in a hydrated state; seafloor stability, affecting subsea-equipment foundations and climate; and energy recovery from hydrates in permafrost and in deep-sea locations. Because of the industrial predominance of the first application, it is discussed at length in Sec.
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Oil, gas, water, steel, and rock are not always chemically inert under oil/gas production conditions. Their mutual interactions, induced in part by changes in pressure and temperature, can lead to the accumulation of solids, both organic and inorganic (scaling) within the production system, as well as deterioration of the metals that the fluids contact (corrosion). This chapter discusses these effects in terms of root causes, the operational difficulties resulting, and the principles/methods that have been used to cope. Case histories are not presented in any detail, but references are given to specific papers dealing with cause/effect/cure examples. It is assumed that the reader is not an expert in things chemical but does have a passing acquaintance with the jargon of chemistry and with some of the general principles underlying chemical processes. "Well production problems" are taken as starting when fluids enter the wellbore and end when fluids reach the storage/treatment facilities. Problems arising from adverse chemistry, occurring in the formation, are discussed elsewhere in the literature. The disposal of toxic coproduction [e.g., H2S, Hg, and naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM)] is mentioned briefly in this chapter and is discussed in the chapter on facilities in the Facilities and Construction Engineering section of thisHandbook. This chapter also does not treat the flow engineering problems, multiple-phase production problems, and the in-situ measurement/control problems attendant to producing hydrocarbons.
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Natural gas is a mixture of many compounds, with methane (CH4) being the main hydrocarbon constituent. When natural gas is produced from an underground reservoir, it is saturated with water vapor and might contain heavy hydrocarbon compounds as well as nonhydrocarbon impurities. In the raw state, natural gas cannot be marketed, and, therefore, it must be processed to meet certain specifications for sales gas. Additionally, it might be economical to extract liquefiable hydrocarbon components, which would have a higher market value on extraction as compared with their heating value if left in the gas. Before the optimum design of any gas treating plant can be decided, at minimum, one must know the raw gas production capability to the plant; composition of separator inlet gas and condensate, and relative condensate/gas rates; specifications for the residue gas; and rate of gas sales. The end user of natural gas needs to be assured of two conditions before committing to the use of gas in ...
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Natural-gas hydrates are ice-like solids that form when free water and natural gas combine at high pressure and low temperature. This can occur in gas and gas/condensate wells, as well as in oil wells. Detailed reviews of gas-hydrate chemistry, physics, and oilfield engineering are found in Makogon[1] and Sloan.[2] This page focuses on prevention, inhibition, and removal of hydrates in production. Other pages provide more detail onhydrate formation and predicting hydrate formation. Shut-in gas wells are particularly prone to serious hydrate problems, if the well has been producing some water.
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Flowline blockages can cause losses of millions of dollars of income while blockage remediation is occurring. The most accurate prediction methods allow avoidance of flowline blockages. When hydrocarbon contacts water, the two components separate into two phases in which the mutual component solubility is less than 1.0 mol% at ambient conditions. This splitting of phases affects almost all treatments of mixed water and hydrocarbon systems and is caused by the different molecular attractions within water and hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbon molecules have a weak, noncharged attraction for each other, while water attracts other water molecules through a strong, charged hydrogen bond.
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For systems containing both water and small ( 9Å) hydrocarbons, hydrates are an important part of the phase diagram. More information about the impact of hydrate formation can be found beginning atHydrates. On a molecular scale, hydrates form when single, small guest molecules are encaged (enclathrated) by hydrogen-bonded water cages, which then combine as solid unit crystals in these nonstoichiometric hydrates. Hydrocarbon guest repulsions prop open different sizes of water cages, which combine to form the three well-defined unit crystal structures shown inFigure 1. * Cubic structure I (sI), with small (4.0 to 5.5 Å) guests, predominates in natural environments. The smallest hydrated molecules (Ar, Kr, O2, and N2), with diameters of less than 4.0 Å, form sII; still smaller molecules cannot be enclathrated except at extreme pressures.
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