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Results
Nanopore-Structure Analysis and Permeability Predictions for a Tight Gas Siltstone Reservoir by Use of Low-Pressure Adsorption and Mercury-Intrusion Techniques
Clarkson, C.R.. R. (University of Calgary) | Wood, J.M.. M. (Encana Corporation) | Burgis, S.E.. E. (Encana Corporation) | Aquino, S.D.. D. (University of Calgary) | Freeman, M.. (University of Calgary)
Summary The pore structure of unconventional gas reservoirs, despite having a significant impact on hydrocarbon storage and transport, has historically been difficult to characterize because of a wide pore-size distribution (PSD), with a significant pore volume (PV) in the nanopore range. A variety of methods is typically required to characterize the full pore spectrum, with each individual technique limited to a certain pore size range. In this work, we investigate the use of nondestructive, low-pressure adsorption methods, in particular low-pressure N2 adsorption analysis, to infer pore shape and to determine PSDs of a tight gas silt-stone reservoir in western Canada. Unlike previous studies, core-plug samples, not crushed samples, are used for isotherm analysis, allowing an undisturbed pore structure (i.e., uncrushed) to be analyzed. Furthermore, the core plugs used for isotherm analysis are subsamples (end pieces) of cores for which mercury-injection capillary pressure (MICP) and permeability measurements were previously performed, allowing a more direct comparison with these techniques. PSDs, determined from two isotherm interpretation methods [Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) theory and density functional theory (DFT)], are in reasonable agreement with MICP data for the portion of the PSD sampled by both. The pore geometry is interpreted as slot-shaped, as inferred from isotherm hysteresis loop shape, the agreement between adsorption- and MICP-derived dominant pore sizes, scanning-electron-microscope (SEM) imaging, and the character of measured permeability stress dependence. Although correlations between inorganic composition and total organic carbon (TOC) and between dominant pore-throat size and permeability are weak, the sample with the lowest illite clay and TOC content has the largest dominant pore-throat size and highest permeability, as estimated from MICP. The presence of stress relief-induced microfractures, however, appears to affect laboratory-derived (pressure-decay and pulse-decay) estimates of permeability for some samples, even after application of confining pressure. On the basis of the premise of slot-shaped pore geometry, fractured rock models (matchstick and cube) were used to predict absolute permeability, by use of dominant pore-throat size from MICP/adsorption analysis and porosity measured under confining pressure. The predictions are reasonable, although permeability is mostly overpredicted for samples that are unaffected by stress-release fractures. The conceptual model used to justify the application of these models is slot pores at grain boundaries or between organic matter and framework grains.
- North America > United States (1.00)
- North America > Canada > Alberta (1.00)
- North America > Canada > British Columbia (0.93)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Geochemistry (0.94)
- Geology > Mineral > Silicate (0.88)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Clastic Rock > Mudrock (0.52)
- North America > United States > Texas > Fort Worth Basin > Barnett Shale Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > New Mexico > San Juan Basin (0.99)
- North America > United States > Colorado > San Juan Basin (0.99)
- (9 more...)
Summary Permeability provides a measure of the ability of a porous medium to transmit fluid and is significant in evaluating reservoir productivity. A case study that compares different methods of permeability prediction in a complex carbonate reservoir is presented in this paper. Presence of siliciclastic fines and diagenetic minerals (e.g. dolomite) within carbonate breccias has resulted in a tight and heterogeneous carbonate reservoir in this case. Permeability estimations from different methods are discussed and compared. In the first part of the paper, permeability measurements from conventional core analysis (CCAL), mercury-injection capillary pressure (MICP) tests, modular formation dynamic tests (MDTs), and nuclear-magnetic-resonance (NMR) logs are discussed. Different combinations of methods can be helpful in permeability calculation, but depending on the nature and scale of each method, permeability assessment in heterogeneous reservoirs is a considerable challenge. Among these methods, the NMR log provides the most continuous permeability prediction. In the second part of the paper, the measured individual permeabilities are combined and calibrated with the NMR-derived permeability. The conventional NMR-based free-fluid (Timur-Coates) model is used to compute the permeability. The NMR-estimated permeability is influenced by wettability effects, presence of isolated pores, and residual oil in the invaded zone. A new modified Timur-Coates model is established on the basis of fluid saturations and isolated pore volumes (PV) of the rock. This model yields a reasonable correlation with the scaled core-derived permeabilities. However, because of the reservoir heterogeneity, particularly in the brecciated intervals, discrepancies between the core data and the modified permeability model are expected.
- North America > United States > Texas (1.00)
- Europe > Norway (0.93)
- Geology > Sedimentary Geology (1.00)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Clastic Rock (1.00)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Carbonate Rock > Dolomite (0.34)
- North America > United States > Texas > Permian Basin > Delaware Basin > Yates Field > Whitehorse Group > Word Group > San Andreas Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Texas > Permian Basin > Delaware Basin > Yates Field > Whitehorse Group > Grayburg Formation > San Andreas Formation (0.99)
- Europe > Norway > Barents Sea > Snadd Formation (0.99)
- (2 more...)
Abstract Resistivity measurements play a key role in hydrocarbon in place calculations for oil and gas reservoirs. They are a direct indicator of fluid saturation and connected pore space available in the formation. Carbonate rocks, which host around half of the world's hydrocarbons, exhibit a wide range of porosities with scales spanning from nanometres to centimetres. The often significant amount of microporosity displayed by Carbonate rocks emphasizes the necessity of an adequate characterization of their micro-features and their contribution to hydrocarbon in place. In this paper we examine upscaling methods to probe formation factor of a fully saturated carbonate sample using an X-ray CT based numerical approach and compare to experimental measurements. Three-dimensional high-resolution X-ray CT enables the numerical calculation of petrophysical properties of interest at the pore scale with resolutions down to a few microns per voxel. For more complex and heterogeneous samples however, a direct calculation of petrophysical properties is not feasible, since the required resolution and a sufficient field of view cannot be obtained simultaneously. Thus an integration of measurements at different scale is required. In this study a carbonate sample of 38mm in diameter is first scanned using the X-ray CT method with a resolution of 26 µm. After accompanying experimental measurements on the full plug, four 5mm plugs were drilled vertically from this sample and X-ray CT images of these plugs acquired at resolutions down to 2.74 µm. We calculate the porosity of the sample (macro- and micro-porosities) using the phase separation methods and then predict the formation factor of the sample at several scales using a Laplace solver. The formation factor is calculated by using a general value of m=2 as cementation factor for intermediate porosity voxels. We compare to experimental measurements of formation factor and porosity both at the small plug and full plug scale and find good agreement. To assess the degree of uncertainty of the numerical estimate, we probe the extent of heterogeneity by investigating the size of a representative elementary volume (REV) for formation factor. We find that for the considered heterogeneous carbonate sample, formation factor varies considerably over intervals less than a centimetre. Our results show that this variation could be explained by different cementation exponents applied at the micro-voxel scale, with the exemption of one plug, for which the cementation exponent would have to be unreasonably low. These cementation factors are derived by direct comparison between numerical simulation and experiment. We conclude that for one plug an error in experimental measurement might have occurred. The numerical approach presented here therefore aids in quality control. Excluding this plug in the upscaling procedure improves the agreement with the experimental result for the whole core while still underestimating formation factor. Allowing for a constant m=2 in the simulation at the small scale and using directly the resulting relationship between porosity and formation factor in the upscaling process leads to an overestimation of formation factor.
- North America > United States > Texas (0.46)
- Asia > Middle East > Saudi Arabia (0.28)
- North America > United States > Texas > Permian Basin > Yeso Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Texas > Permian Basin > Yates Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Texas > Permian Basin > Wolfcamp Formation (0.99)
- (26 more...)
Abstract Facies modeling forms an integral part of geological numerical modeling. Over the last two decades, different facies modeling methods have been developed using geostatistical algorithms. Most of these methods rely on the assumption of discrete or binary modeling during which each model cell is assigned a single facies. In this study, the size of the cells is on average 100 meters by 100 meters laterally by one meter thick. Based on comparisons to outcrops and subsurface data, such cells should, in fact, include a mixture of facies. The discrete-facies approach assumes a single facies per cell. The distribution of the facies between wells is described using classical categorical geostatistical algorithms. Reservoir properties are then populated by facies within mapped environments of deposition. This process is well-established and straightforward, especially with regard to tying well data, handling property trends, and applying net rock cut-offs. A mixed-facies approach can be performed using effective property modeling in which multiple small, fine-scale models are built for each environment of deposition. These models are re-sampled to the full-field cell volume using static and flow-based upscaling methods. The resulting statistics are then used with geostatistics, conditioned to the proportion of each facies present, to populate the full-field model. Such models allow the incorporation of core-scale heterogeneity potentially important in improved oil recovery projects, and may reduce modeling cycle times, especially when multiple iterations are required, such as during history-matching or uncertainty analysis. This paper compares the impact on simulated fluid flow of modeling facies using discrete modeling versus a mix of facies per cell. Shoreface and subordinate fluvial environments of deposition facies, and five reservoir lithofacies, were modeled. Fluid-flow simulation of the mixed-facies model, under both primary depletion and pressure maintenance conditions, was smooth and uniform, with a highly conformable flood front. The discrete model was more stratified, with faster and less conformable water movement. The assignment of discrete facies to large model cells (few hundred meters laterally & few meters vertically) takes less time than a mixed-facies approach and does a better job of preserving organized extremes of permeability important at the production timescale. In the early stages of field development, when there is much uncertainty and a rapid, scenario-based modeling approach is desirable, the discrete approach can be used to flag heterogeneity-related risks more quickly and confidently than the mixed-facies technique. Inaccuracies in performance parameters resulting from the assignment of unscaled discrete values can be corrected using fine-scale sector models tailored to the highest risk cases.
- North America > United States (1.00)
- Asia > Middle East > Yemen (0.93)
- Asia > Middle East > Saudi Arabia (0.93)
- (4 more...)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock (1.00)
- Geology > Sedimentary Geology > Depositional Environment > Continental Environment > Fluvial Environment (0.54)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Petrology > Petrography (0.46)
Abstract The Middle Minagish Oolite Formation is 450 to 550 feet thick interval of porous limestone reservoir, composed of peloidal/skeletal grainstones with lesser amount of packstone, oolitic grainstone, wackstone and mudstone in Umm Gudair field, West Kuwait. It is characterized by small scale reservoir heterogeneity, primarily related to the depositional as well as diagenetic features. Capturing reservoir properties in micro scale and its spatial variation needs special attention in this reservoir due to its inherent anisotropy. Reservoir properties will depend on the level that we are analyzing on reservoir (millimeter to meter scale). Here we used Electrical Borehole Image (EBI) and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) to capture small scale feature of Umm Gudair carbonate reservoir and compared them with core data In present work, reservoir properties (including texture, facies, porosity and permeability) interpreted by the EBI shows good match with NMR driven properties and core data. Textural changes in image logs also match well with pore size distribution from NMR logs. Further highly porous zones which are considered either due to primary porosity or vugs match with larger pores of NMR logs and these corroborates with also core derived porosity. A good match has been observed between EBI, NMR and cored derived porosity. Permeability calculations have also been made and compared with core data. A detail workflow has been developed here to interpret reservoir properties on un-cored wells, where only low vertical resolution data is available. This technique is quite useful to identify the characters and mode of origin highly porous zones in reservoir section which are generally not identifiable by low resolution standard logs. This workflow will allow us to interpret the heterogeneity at high resolution level in un-cored wells, as results are validated with integration of EBI, NMR and core data.
- North America > United States > Texas (1.00)
- Asia > Middle East > Kuwait (0.88)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Carbonate Rock (1.00)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Clastic Rock > Mudrock (0.34)
- Geophysics > Seismic Surveying > Borehole Seismic Surveying (1.00)
- Geophysics > Borehole Geophysics (1.00)
- North America > United States > Texas > Permian Basin > Yeso Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Texas > Permian Basin > Yates Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Texas > Permian Basin > Wolfcamp Formation (0.99)
- (40 more...)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Reservoir Fluid Dynamics > Flow in porous media (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Reservoir Characterization > Geologic modeling (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Formation Evaluation & Management > Open hole/cased hole log analysis (1.00)
- Production and Well Operations > Well & Reservoir Surveillance and Monitoring > Borehole imaging and wellbore seismic (1.00)
Abstract The field X is a brown heavy oil field producing under strong bottom water drive since the mid-1980. Production is from a combination of Amin aeolian and Al Khlata glacial reservoir sediments. At present, the development is focused on drilling horizontal infill wells. One of the biggest challenges is the unfavorable mobility contrast between the heavy oil and water causing early water breakthrough. The Amin Formation, the primary reservoir, is characterized by a high net to gross ratio and an average porosity of 30 %. However the initial hydrocarbon saturation at the same porosity often varies by 20 % in different parts of the field. Furthermore, core measurements show an order of magnitude scatter in permeability at the same porosity, indicating the presence of different facies. In early studies these variations were attributed mainly to the grain size variations. A later petrographical study found that the abundance of clays and feldspars could also severely reduce permeability, but may retain high porosity. In the current Study it was found that the rocks have variable radioactivity due to the presence of radioactive Potassium isotope associated with feldspars. A fare correlation was observed between the grain size and the content of feldspars from core. A novel approach to reservoir characterization integrating core and logs was developed leading to a major breakthrough in the reservoir characterization including: Enhanced permeability prediction using normalized Gamma Ray (GR) log as 3rd parameter; Facies identification using normalized Gamma Ray cut-off; Facies based Saturation-Height models. This work is a good example of advances in reservoir characterization achieved by integrating core and log data. It results in better understanding of reservoir properties distribution, optimization of completions of new wells and improvement of further development scenarios. In particular, abnormally high gross production and high water cut in the north of the field is currently in line with new facies scheme.
- Geology > Petroleum Play Type > Unconventional Play > Heavy Oil Play (1.00)
- Geology > Mineral > Silicate > Tectosilicate > Feldspar (0.66)
- Asia > Middle East > Oman > South Oman > South Oman Salt Basin > Al Khlata Formation (0.99)
- Asia > Middle East > Oman > Central Oman > South Oman Salt Basin > Nahr Umr Formation (0.94)
Abstract The matrix blocks in fractured reservoirs are the primary storage of hydrocarbons, so matrix-fracture transfer mechanisms are of crucial importance in recovery from fractured reservoirs. During gas injection into fractured reservoirs, fractures are filled with injected gas while matrix blocks contain the reservoir fluid. In this condition due to compositional difference between the gas in fractures and the fluid in matrix, diffusive exchanges of components between matrix and fracture may have significant contribution on matrix oil recovery in addition to gravity drainage or other transfer mechanisms. In this work, to evaluate the significance of molecular diffusion, the laboratory experiment of "Gas Injection into Fractured cores" is simulated using a compositional model and this model is used to run several experiments which help in understanding the way that each recovery mechanism acts. The advantage of running simulation in core scale is that in this way there is the possibility of using small grid size which significantly reduces the issues of numerical dispersion. And more over the existing experimental data can be used for model adjustment. In the experimental works the procedure is to place a core sample into a core holder in such a way that the annulus space between the core boundary and the core holder is very small. This annulus space is representative of the fracture surrounding the matrix blocks in the reservoir. Then after using special techniques the core is saturated with the representative reservoir oil, and after this primary core initialization, gas is injected into the annulus and the amount of recovered oil is measured versus time. This study reveals that, molecular diffusion acts like a catalyst and improves the recovery mechanism by enhancing the gas movement within matrix. At the prevalent conditions of this work, the main recovery mechanisms are the miscibility effects (Condensing or Vaporizing gas drives) that are enhanced by molecular diffusion. Sensitivity analysis done in this work reveals that significance and contribution of molecular diffusion in recovery changes with different parameters such as matrix permeability and porosity, gas composition, etc. Fractured reservoirs contain a significant portion of the world’s reserves, and Gas injection is a common recovery practice in these reservoirs and understanding the recovery mechanisms is of crucial importance for correct simulation of this process. This study shows, although significance of molecular diffusion changes with reservoir parameters, any way neglecting it in simulation studies will result in underestimation of gas injection efficiency.
Rock Typing and Characterization of Carbonate Reservoirs: A Case Study from South East Kuwait
Turkey, S.. (KOC) | Al-Kanderi, J.. (KOC) | Kumar, P.. (KOC) | Al-Alawi, G.. (Target Oilfield Services) | Al-Hashmi, S.. (Target Oilfield Services) | Al-Harthy, A.. (Target Oilfield Services) | Al-Raisi, M.. (Target Oilfield Services)
Abstract This paper presents the main steps of rock-typing workflow and the technique applied to estimate permeability. Reservoir rock typing (RRT) is a process of up-scaling detailed geological and petrophysical information to provide more accurate input for 3D geological and flow simulation models. The reservoir rocks that correspond to a particular rock type should have similar rock fabric, pore types and pore throat size distribution. The study integrated multi-scale data types to develop a robust and predictable rock type scheme. This consists of detailed sedimentological description of depositional environment and associated sedimentary features, detailed numerical petrographic analysis of rock texture, grain types, porosity types and rock mineralogy and petrophysical data grouping using openhole log and core plugs porosity-permeability relationship and pore throat size distribution (MICP). The main objective was to develop a reliable reservoir rock type scheme that captures the heterogeneity in Jurassic carbonate reservoir for the Middle Marrat Formation in South East Kuwait area and implementation of the RRT to the permeability prediction within the field. Integration of the thin sections, porosity-permeability, pore throat size and distribution has resulted in the identification of reservoir rock types. A total of 14 different rock types were identified within the reservoir interval in the cored wells, which is subsequently grouped into eight due to modelling limitation. The RRT up-scaling was done in a way to minimize the impact of grouping on permeability and saturation computations. The prediction success between the cored RRT and the predicted RRT using openhole data is more than 85%. As a result, the permeability computation success between core plugs and computed permeability using the RRT is more than 80%.
- Geology > Sedimentary Geology (1.00)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Carbonate Rock > Dolomite (0.35)
Structure and Hydrocarbon Prospects of the Russian Western Arctic Shelf
Stoupakova, A.V. (Moscow State University) | Kirykhina, T.A. (Moscow State University) | Suslova, A.A. (Moscow State University) | Kirykhina, N.M. (Moscow State University) | Sautkin, R.S. (Moscow State University) | Bordunov, S.I. (Moscow State University)
Abstract The Russian Western Arctic Basins cover the huge area including the Barentsand Kara seas, the western part of the Laptev sea and adjacent territories withsome archipelagoes and islands (Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land, SevernayaZemlya, Novaya Zemlya, etc.). They comprise the Barents and Kara Basins, thenorthern areas of the Timan-Pechora Basin, the North West Siberia, includingYamal and Gidan peninsulas and the Yenisey-Khatanga Basin. Within the RussianWestern Arctic basins the following main tectonic elements can be identified:extensional depressions (Central-Barents, Yenisei-Khatanga, West Siberia, EastUrals) with sedimentary thickness is more than 12–14 km; platform massiveswith average thickness of sediments of 4 – 6 km, monoclines and tectonic steps, like transition zones between extensional depressions and platform massives. Western Arctic basins are filled by mainly Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sedimentarysuccessions. In the sedimentary cover of this large region, many commonstratigraphic complexes and unconformities can be traced within Palaeozoic andMesozoic complexes that show similarity of geological conditions of theirformation. Analysis of the Russian Western Arctic basins, their structures andhydrocarbon prosepctivity shows the areas, which are favourable for hydrocarbonaccumulations. Deep depressions, as areas of long-term and stable sinking, arehighly promising zones for the accumulation of predominantly gas fields. Theyform regional gas accumulation belts, extending for thousands of kilometres, where the largest fields can be expected in the zones of their intersectionwith the major tectonic elements of another strike. Within the Barents-Karashelf, the large belt of predominantly gas accumulation extends from the northof the West Siberian province through the South Kara basin and into the BarentsSea. The second potential belt of predominantly gas accumulation may beassociated with the North Barents ultra-deep depression. On the flanks of thedepressions the sedimentary cover profile does not contain the complete set ofoil-and-gas-bearing complexes, identified in the central parts of theextensional depressions. The reservoirs can be filled by HC due to the lateralmigration of fluids from the neighbouring kitchens or from their own dominantoil-and-gas source rock strata. For the formation of oil accumulations, themost favourable are platform massifs and ancient uplifts areas.
- North America (1.00)
- Europe > Russia > Barents Sea (1.00)
- Asia > Russia > Ural Federal District > Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug (1.00)
- (3 more...)
- Phanerozoic > Mesozoic > Jurassic (1.00)
- Phanerozoic > Mesozoic > Triassic (0.70)
- Phanerozoic > Paleozoic > Devonian > Upper Devonian (0.69)
- (2 more...)
- Geology > Sedimentary Basin (1.00)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Stratigraphy (1.00)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Economic Geology > Petroleum Geology (1.00)
- (3 more...)
- Europe > Russia > Northwestern Federal District > Northwestern Federal District > Nenets Autonomous Okrug > Timan-Pechora Basin (0.99)
- Europe > Russia > Northwestern Federal District > Nenets Autonomous Okrug > Timan-Pechora Basin > Khoreiver Basin > Pomorskoye Field (0.99)
- Europe > Russia > Northwestern Federal District > Komi Republic > Nenets Autonomous Okrug > Timan-Pechora Basin (0.99)
- (46 more...)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Unconventional and Complex Reservoirs (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Reservoir Characterization > Exploration, development, structural geology (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Formation Evaluation & Management (1.00)
- Production and Well Operations > Well & Reservoir Surveillance and Monitoring (0.94)
ABSTRACT This paper presents a method for determining the Archie saturation exponent, n, from a single, nonequilibrium centrifuge step. The input measurements include detailed 3D saturation distributions from magnetic resonance imaging and the DC conductivity of the sample under examination. The latter is obtained by making use of a patented 4-contact cell. The sample is modeled as a 3D conductivity network and a specially developed algorithm based on random walk (RW) is used to compute its overall conductivity in a very short time. The value of the n exponent is determined by matching the measured conductivity to the calculated one. The entire analysis takes one day. Examples demonstrate the method and details of the impedance cell and the RW algorithm are provided.