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Collaborating Authors
Unconventional and Complex Reservoirs
Reservoir Simulation of Steam Fracturing in Early-Cycle Cyclic Steam Stimulation
Cokar, Marya (Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary) | Kallos, Michael S. (Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary) | Gates, Ian D. (Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary)
Summary In cyclic steam stimulation (CSS), steam is injected above the fracture pressure into the oil-sands reservoir. In early cycles, the injected steam fractures the reservoir, creating a relatively thin dilated zone that allows rapid distribution of heat within the reservoir without excessive displacement of oil from the neighborhood of the wellbore. Numerical reservoir-simulation models of CSS that deal with the fracturing process have difficulty simultaneously capturing flowing bottomhole-pressure (BHP) behavior and steam injection rate. In this research, coupled reservoir-simulation (flow and heat transfer) and geomechanics models are investigated to model dynamic fracturing during the first cycle of CSS in an oil-sands reservoir. In Alberta, Canada, in terms of volumetric production rate, CSS is the largest thermal recovery technology for bitumen production, with production rates equal to approximately 1.3 million B/D in 2008. The average recovery factor from CSS is between 25 and 28% at the economic end of the process. This implies that the majority of bitumen remains in the ground. Because the mobility of the bitumen depends strongly on temperature, the performance of CSS is intimately linked to steam conformance in the reservoir, which is largely established during steam fracturing of the reservoir in the early cycles of the process. Thus, a fundamental understanding of the flow and geomechanical aspects of early-cycle CSS is critical. A detailed thermal reservoir-simulation model, including dilation and dynamic fracturing, was developed, with the use of a commercially available thermal reservoir simulator, to understand their effects on BHP and injection rate. The results demonstrate that geomechanics must be included to accurately model CSS. The results also suggest that the reservoir dilates during steam injection as the result of increases in reservoir temperature, which lead to thermal dilation and higher pore pressure.
- North America > United States (1.00)
- North America > Canada > Alberta (1.00)
- Geology > Petroleum Play Type > Unconventional Play > Heavy Oil Play (1.00)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Geomechanics (1.00)
- North America > Canada > British Columbia > Peace River Field (0.99)
- North America > Canada > Alberta > Western Canada Sedimentary Basin > Alberta Basin > Primrose Field > Clearwater Formation (0.99)
- North America > Canada > Alberta > Western Canada Sedimentary Basin > Alberta Basin > Clearwater Formation (0.99)
- (3 more...)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Unconventional and Complex Reservoirs > Oil sand, oil shale, bitumen (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Reservoir Simulation (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Improved and Enhanced Recovery > Thermal methods (1.00)
Nanopore-Structure Analysis and Permeability Predictions for a Tight Gas Siltstone Reservoir by Use of Low-Pressure Adsorption and Mercury-Intrusion Techniques
Clarkson, C.R.. R. (University of Calgary) | Wood, J.M.. M. (Encana Corporation) | Burgis, S.E.. E. (Encana Corporation) | Aquino, S.D.. D. (University of Calgary) | Freeman, M.. (University of Calgary)
Summary The pore structure of unconventional gas reservoirs, despite having a significant impact on hydrocarbon storage and transport, has historically been difficult to characterize because of a wide pore-size distribution (PSD), with a significant pore volume (PV) in the nanopore range. A variety of methods is typically required to characterize the full pore spectrum, with each individual technique limited to a certain pore size range. In this work, we investigate the use of nondestructive, low-pressure adsorption methods, in particular low-pressure N2 adsorption analysis, to infer pore shape and to determine PSDs of a tight gas silt-stone reservoir in western Canada. Unlike previous studies, core-plug samples, not crushed samples, are used for isotherm analysis, allowing an undisturbed pore structure (i.e., uncrushed) to be analyzed. Furthermore, the core plugs used for isotherm analysis are subsamples (end pieces) of cores for which mercury-injection capillary pressure (MICP) and permeability measurements were previously performed, allowing a more direct comparison with these techniques. PSDs, determined from two isotherm interpretation methods [Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) theory and density functional theory (DFT)], are in reasonable agreement with MICP data for the portion of the PSD sampled by both. The pore geometry is interpreted as slot-shaped, as inferred from isotherm hysteresis loop shape, the agreement between adsorption- and MICP-derived dominant pore sizes, scanning-electron-microscope (SEM) imaging, and the character of measured permeability stress dependence. Although correlations between inorganic composition and total organic carbon (TOC) and between dominant pore-throat size and permeability are weak, the sample with the lowest illite clay and TOC content has the largest dominant pore-throat size and highest permeability, as estimated from MICP. The presence of stress relief-induced microfractures, however, appears to affect laboratory-derived (pressure-decay and pulse-decay) estimates of permeability for some samples, even after application of confining pressure. On the basis of the premise of slot-shaped pore geometry, fractured rock models (matchstick and cube) were used to predict absolute permeability, by use of dominant pore-throat size from MICP/adsorption analysis and porosity measured under confining pressure. The predictions are reasonable, although permeability is mostly overpredicted for samples that are unaffected by stress-release fractures. The conceptual model used to justify the application of these models is slot pores at grain boundaries or between organic matter and framework grains.
- North America > United States (1.00)
- North America > Canada > Alberta (1.00)
- North America > Canada > British Columbia (0.93)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Geochemistry (0.94)
- Geology > Mineral > Silicate (0.88)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Clastic Rock > Mudrock (0.52)
- North America > United States > Texas > Fort Worth Basin > Barnett Shale Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > New Mexico > San Juan Basin (0.99)
- North America > United States > Colorado > San Juan Basin (0.99)
- (9 more...)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Unconventional and Complex Reservoirs (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Reservoir Fluid Dynamics > Flow in porous media (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Formation Evaluation & Management (1.00)
Special Considerations in the Design Optimization of the Production Casing in High-Rate, Multistage-Fractured Shale Wells
Sugden, C.. (Blade Energy Partners) | Johnson, J.. (Exco Resources) | Chambers, M.. (Exco Resources) | Ring, G.. (Blade Energy Partners) | Suryanarayana, P.V.. V. (Blade Energy Partners)
Summary Typical shale well completions involve massive, multistage fracturing in horizontal wells. Aggressive trajectories (with up to 20°/ 100 ft doglegs), multistage high-rate fracturing (up to 20 stages, 100 bbl/min), and increasing temperature and pressure of shale reservoirs result in large thermal and bending stresses that are critical in the design of production casing. In addition, when cement voids are present and the production casing is not restrained during fracturing, thermal effects can result in magnified load conditions. The resulting loads can be well in excess of those deemed allowable by regular casing design techniques. These loads are often ignored in standard well design, exposing casing to the risk of failure during multistage fracturing. In this work, the major factors influencing normal and special loads on production casing in shale wells are discussed. A method for optimization of shale well production casing design is then introduced. The constraints on the applicability of different design options are discussed. Load-magnification effects of cement voids are described, and a method for their evaluation is developed. Thermal effects during cooling are shown to create both bending stress magnification and annular pressure reduction caused by fluid contraction in trapped cement voids. This can result in significant loads and new modes of failure that must be considered in design. The performance of connections under these loads is also discussed. Examples are provided to illustrate the key concepts described. Finally, acceptable design options for shale well production casing are discussed. The results presented here are expected to improve the reliability of shale well designs. They provide operators with insight into load effects that must be considered in the design of production casing for such wells. By understanding the causes and magnitude of load-augmentation effects, operators can manage their design and practices to ensure well integrity.
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Clastic Rock > Mudrock > Shale (1.00)
- Geology > Petroleum Play Type (1.00)
- North America > United States > Texas > Haynesville Shale Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Texas > Fort Worth Basin > Barnett Shale Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Oklahoma > Arkoma Basin > Cana Woodford Shale Formation (0.99)
- (5 more...)
- Well Drilling > Casing and Cementing > Casing design (1.00)
- Well Completion > Hydraulic Fracturing > Multistage fracturing (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Unconventional and Complex Reservoirs > Shale oil (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Unconventional and Complex Reservoirs > Shale gas (1.00)
Summary The Schoonebeek heavy-oil field was first developed by Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij B.V. (NAM) in the late 1940s. Because of economics, it was abandoned in 1996. In 2008, the Schoonebeek Redevelopment Project, using a gravity-assisted-steamflood (GASF) design concept, was initiated with 73 wells (44 producers, 25 injectors, and 4 observation wells). Steam injection and cool-down cycles subject a cement sheath to some of the most severe load conditions in the industry. Wellbore thermal modeling predicted that surface and production sections would experience temperatures in excess of 285°C (545°F) and considerable stress across weak formations. A key design requirement was long-term integrity of the cement sheath over an expected 25- to 30-year field life span. Complicating this requirement was the need for lightweight cementing systems, because lost-circulation issues were expected in both hole sections, particularly in the mechanically weak Bentheim sandstone. The long-term integrity challenge was divided into chemical and mechanical elements. Prior research on high-temperature cement performance by the operator provided necessary guidance for this project. Laboratory mechanical and analytical tests were conducted to confirm the high-temperature stability of the chosen design. In addition to using lightweight components, foaming the slurry allowed the density, mechanical, and economic targets to be met. A standardized logistical plan was put in place to allow use of the same base blend for the entire well, adjusted as needed, using liquid additives, and applying the foaming process when necessary. This single-blend approach greatly simplified bulk-handling logistics, allowing use of dedicated bulk-handling equipment. The first well was constructed in January 2009; all 73 wells have been successfully cemented to surface. The steaming process, initiated in May 2011, has progressed with no well integrity issues to date.
- North America > United States (1.00)
- Europe > Netherlands > North Sea > Dutch Sector (0.50)
- Geology > Petroleum Play Type > Unconventional Play > Heavy Oil Play (1.00)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline > Geomechanics (0.93)
- Geology > Rock Type > Sedimentary Rock > Clastic Rock > Sandstone (0.35)
- Europe > Netherlands > North Sea > Dutch Sector > Schoonebeek License > Bentheim Sandstone Formation (0.99)
- Europe > Netherlands > North Sea > Dutch Sector > Schoonebeek Field > Bentheim Sandstone Formation (0.99)
- Europe > Netherlands > Coevorden Field > Z3 Carbonate Formation (0.98)
- (6 more...)
- Well Drilling > Wellbore Design > Wellbore integrity (1.00)
- Well Drilling > Pressure Management > Well control (1.00)
- Well Drilling > Drilling Operations (1.00)
- (7 more...)
An Innovative Approach for Pore Pressure Prediction and Drilling Optimization in an Abnormally Subpressured Basin
Contreras, Oscar (Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary) | Hareland, Geir (Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary) | Aguilera, Roberto (Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary)
Summary Thus far, an indirect generalized method to predict pore pressure under subpressured conditions has not been reported in the literature. In this work, an innovative procedure is presented for estimation of pore pressure and optimization of wells drilled in the abnormally subpressured Deep Basin of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (WCSB). The procedure starts with detailed evaluation of five wells drilled in a township that covers the study area. Pore pressure was calculated from sonic logs and the modified D exponent by the use of Eaton's method (Eaton 1975), which proved to be the most effective approach for abnormally subpressured conditions over a variety of methods tested (Contreras et al. 2011). The optimization procedure was carried out by use of the apparent-rock-strength log (ARSL), which is an effective indicator of formation drillability and is very sensitive to the pore pressure. Next, optimization of individual sections in each well was carried out to determine the optimum types of bits and operational parameters for the lowest cost of drilling. An artificial-intelligence function was implemented to set up the optimum combination of parameters in such a way that the rate of penetration (ROP) (m/h) was increased after a number of simulation runs while controlling the bit wear. Special attention was focused on tight gas reservoirs for selection of the most suitable parameters that increase the quality of drill cuttings. It was concluded that the roller-cone bit IADC 547 (with at least 0.73 hp in the bit per square inch) provides the best-quality cuttings for the Nikanassin Group. This is of paramount importance for increasing accuracy in the quantitative determination of permeability and porosity from cuttings particularly in those tight gas reservoirs where the amount of cores is very limited. It is concluded that wells in the Deep Basin of the WCSB can be drilled efficiently with seven bit runs while maintaining the cuttings quality, bit-wear level, and well stability at a significantly high average ROP of 13 m/h. Another conclusion is that the normal trend methods from sonic logs are the most effective approach when dealing with an abnormally subpressured basin.
- North America > Canada > British Columbia (1.00)
- North America > Canada > Alberta (1.00)
- North America > United States > Oklahoma > Anadarko Basin > M Formation (0.99)
- North America > Canada > British Columbia > Western Canada Sedimentary Basin > Alberta Basin > Deep Basin (0.99)
- North America > Canada > Alberta > Western Canada Sedimentary Basin > Alberta Basin > Deep Basin (0.99)
- Well Drilling > Drill Bits (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Unconventional and Complex Reservoirs (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Reservoir Characterization > Reservoir geomechanics (1.00)
Abstract This paper analyzes reaction and thermal front development in porous reservoirs with reacting flows, such as those encountered in shale oil extraction. A set of dimensionless parameters and a 3D code are developed in order to investigate the important physical and chemical variables of such reservoirs when heated by in situ methods. This contribution builds on a 1D model developed for the precursor study to this work. Theory necessary for this study is presented, namely shale decomposition chemical mechanisms, governing equations for multiphase flow in porous media and necessary closure models. Plotting the ratio of the thermal wave speed to the fluid speed allows one to infer that the reaction wave front ends where this ratio is at a minimum. The reaction front follows the thermal front closely, thus allowing assumptions to be made about the extent of decomposition solely by looking at thermal wave progression. Furthermore, this sensitivity analysis showed that a certain minimum permeability is required in order to ensure the formation of a traveling thermal wave. It was found that by studying the non-dimensional governing parameters of the system one can ascribe characteristic values for these parameters for given initial and boundary conditions. This allows one to roughly predict the performance of a particular method on a particular reservoir given approximate values for initial and boundary conditions. Channelling and flow blockage due to carbon residue buildup impeded each method’s performance. Blockage was found to be a result of imbalanced heating.
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Unconventional and Complex Reservoirs > Shale oil (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Unconventional and Complex Reservoirs > Shale gas (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Reservoir Fluid Dynamics > Flow in porous media (1.00)
Abstract The high-profile blowout at Macondo well in the US Gulf of Mexico, brought the challenges and the risks of drilling into high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) fields increasingly into focus. Technology, HSE, new standards, such as new API procedures, and educating the crew seem to be vital in developing HPHT resources. High-pressure high-temperature fields broadly exist in Gulf of Mexico, North Sea, South East Asia, Africa, China and Middle East. Almost a quarter of HPHT operations worldwide is expected to happen in American continent and the majority of that solely in North America. Oil major companies have identified key challenges in HPHT development and production, and service providers have offered insights regarding current or planned technologies to meet these challenges. Drilling into some shale plays such as Haynesville or deep formations and producing oil and gas at HPHT condition, have been crucially challenging. Therefore, companies are compelled to meet or exceed a vast array of environmental, health and safety standards. This paper, as a simplified summary of the current status of HPHT global market, clarifies the existing technological gaps in the field of HPHT drilling, cementing and completion. It also contains the necessary knowledge that every engineer or geoscientist might need to know about high pressure high temperature wells. This study, not only reviews the reports from the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement (BOEMRE) and important case studies of HPHT operations around the globe but also compiles the technical solutions to better maneuver in the HPHT market. Finally, the HPHT related priorities of National Energy Technology Laboratories (NETL), operated by the US Department of Energy (DOE), and DeepStar, as a strong mix of large and mid-size operators are investigated.
- North America > United States > Texas (1.00)
- Europe > United Kingdom > North Sea > Central North Sea (0.68)
- Geology > Mineral (0.46)
- Geology > Rock Type (0.46)
- Geology > Petroleum Play Type > Unconventional Play > Shale Play (0.34)
- Government > Regional Government > North America Government > United States Government (1.00)
- Energy > Oil & Gas > Upstream (1.00)
- North America > United States > Texas > Haynesville Shale Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Mississippi > Thomasville Field (0.99)
- North America > United States > Louisiana > Haynesville Shale Formation (0.99)
- (53 more...)
Laboratory Challenges of Sand Production in Unconsolidated Cores
Ali, Mohammad A. (Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research) | Al-Hamad, K.. (Kuwait Oil Company) | Al-Haddad, A.. (Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research) | AlKholosy, S.. (Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research) | Sennah, H. Abu (Kuwait Oil Company) | Sanyal, T.. (Kuwait Oil Company) | Aniel, J.. (Kuwait Oil Company)
Abstract Improved oil recovery for heavy oil reservoirs is becoming a new research study for Kuwaiti reservoirs. There are two mechanisms for improved oil recovery by thermal methods. The first method is to heat the oil to higher temperatures, and thereby, decrease its viscosity for improved mobility. The second mechanism is similar to water flooding, in which oil is displaced to the production wells. While more steam is needed for this method than for the cyclic method, it is typically more effective at recovering a larger portion of the oil. Steam injection heats up the oil and reduce its viscosity for better mobility and higher sweep efficiency. During this process, the velocity of the moving oil increases with lower viscosity oil; and thus, the heated zone around the injection well will have high velocity. The increase of velocity in an unconsolidated formation is usually accompanied with sand movement in the reservoir creating a potential problem. The objective of this study was to understand the effect of flowrate and viscosity on sand production in heavy oil reservoir that is subjected for thermal recovery process. The results would be useful for designing completion under steam injection where the viscosity of the oil is expected to change due to thermal operations. A total of 21 representative core samples were selected from different wells in Kuwait. A reservoir condition core flooding system was used to flow oil into the core plugs and to examine sand production. Initially, the baseline liquid permeability was measured with low viscosity oil and low flowrate. Then, the flowrate was increased gradually and monitored to establish the value for sand movement for each plug sample. At the end of the test, the produced oil containing sand was filtered for sand content. The result showed that sand production increased with higher viscosity oil and high flowrate. However, sand compaction at the injection face of the cores was more significant than sand production. In addition, high confining pressure contributes to additional sand production. The average critical velocity was estimated ranged from 18 to 257 ft/day for the 0.74 cp oil, 2 to 121 ft/day for the 16 cp oil, and 1 to 26 ft/day for the 684 cp oil.
- Geology > Petroleum Play Type > Unconventional Play > Heavy Oil Play (0.96)
- Geology > Geological Subdiscipline (0.88)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Improved and Enhanced Recovery > Thermal methods (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Formation Evaluation & Management > Core analysis (1.00)
- Facilities Design, Construction and Operation > Flow Assurance > Solids (scale, sand, etc.) (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Unconventional and Complex Reservoirs > Oil sand, oil shale, bitumen (0.96)
Abstract The need to develop new tools that allow reservoir engineers to optimize reservoir performance is becoming more demanding by the day. One of the most challenging and influential problems facing reservoir engineers is well placement optimization. The North Kuwait field (NKF) consists of six fields containing four naturally fractured carbonate formations. The reservoirs are composed of relatively tight limestone and dolomite embedded with anhydrate and shale. The fields are divided into isolated compartments based on fault zones and supported by a combination of different fluid compositions, initial pressures, and estimated free-water levels. Due to natural complexity, tightness, and high drilling costs of wells in the NKF, it is very important to identify the sweet spots and the optimum well locations. This paper presents two intelligent methods that use dynamic numerical simulation model results and static reservoir properties to identify zones with a high-production potential: reservoir opportunity index (ROI) and simulation opportunity index (SOI). The Petrel* E&P software platform was chosen as the integrated platform to implement the workflow. The fit-for-purpose time dependent 2D maps generated by the Petrel platform facilitated the decision-making process used for locating new wells in the dominant flow system and provided immense support for field-development plans. The difference between the two methods is insignificant because of reservoir tightness, limited interference, and natural uncertainty on compartmentalization. At this stage, pressure is not a key parameter. As a result, unlike brown fields, less weight was given to simulated pressure, and SOI was used to select the well locations. The results of this study show that implementing these workflows and obtaining the resulting maps significantly improve the selection process to identify the most productive areas and layers in a field. Also, the optimum numbers of wells using this method obtained in less time and with fewer resources are compared with results using traditional industry approaches.
- Asia > Middle East > Kuwait > Jahra Governorate > Arabian Basin > Widyan Basin > North Kuwait Jurassic (NKJ) Fields > Marrat Formation > Upper Marrat Formation (0.98)
- Asia > Middle East > Kuwait > Jahra Governorate > Arabian Basin > Widyan Basin > North Kuwait Jurassic (NKJ) Fields > Marrat Formation > Sargelu Formation (0.98)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Unconventional and Complex Reservoirs > Naturally-fractured reservoirs (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Unconventional and Complex Reservoirs > Carbonate reservoirs (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Reservoir Simulation (1.00)
- (2 more...)
Abstract Resistivity measurements play a key role in hydrocarbon in place calculations for oil and gas reservoirs. They are a direct indicator of fluid saturation and connected pore space available in the formation. Carbonate rocks, which host around half of the world's hydrocarbons, exhibit a wide range of porosities with scales spanning from nanometres to centimetres. The often significant amount of microporosity displayed by Carbonate rocks emphasizes the necessity of an adequate characterization of their micro-features and their contribution to hydrocarbon in place. In this paper we examine upscaling methods to probe formation factor of a fully saturated carbonate sample using an X-ray CT based numerical approach and compare to experimental measurements. Three-dimensional high-resolution X-ray CT enables the numerical calculation of petrophysical properties of interest at the pore scale with resolutions down to a few microns per voxel. For more complex and heterogeneous samples however, a direct calculation of petrophysical properties is not feasible, since the required resolution and a sufficient field of view cannot be obtained simultaneously. Thus an integration of measurements at different scale is required. In this study a carbonate sample of 38mm in diameter is first scanned using the X-ray CT method with a resolution of 26 µm. After accompanying experimental measurements on the full plug, four 5mm plugs were drilled vertically from this sample and X-ray CT images of these plugs acquired at resolutions down to 2.74 µm. We calculate the porosity of the sample (macro- and micro-porosities) using the phase separation methods and then predict the formation factor of the sample at several scales using a Laplace solver. The formation factor is calculated by using a general value of m=2 as cementation factor for intermediate porosity voxels. We compare to experimental measurements of formation factor and porosity both at the small plug and full plug scale and find good agreement. To assess the degree of uncertainty of the numerical estimate, we probe the extent of heterogeneity by investigating the size of a representative elementary volume (REV) for formation factor. We find that for the considered heterogeneous carbonate sample, formation factor varies considerably over intervals less than a centimetre. Our results show that this variation could be explained by different cementation exponents applied at the micro-voxel scale, with the exemption of one plug, for which the cementation exponent would have to be unreasonably low. These cementation factors are derived by direct comparison between numerical simulation and experiment. We conclude that for one plug an error in experimental measurement might have occurred. The numerical approach presented here therefore aids in quality control. Excluding this plug in the upscaling procedure improves the agreement with the experimental result for the whole core while still underestimating formation factor. Allowing for a constant m=2 in the simulation at the small scale and using directly the resulting relationship between porosity and formation factor in the upscaling process leads to an overestimation of formation factor.
- North America > United States > Texas (0.46)
- Asia > Middle East > Saudi Arabia (0.28)
- North America > United States > Texas > Permian Basin > Yeso Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Texas > Permian Basin > Yates Formation (0.99)
- North America > United States > Texas > Permian Basin > Wolfcamp Formation (0.99)
- (26 more...)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Unconventional and Complex Reservoirs > Carbonate reservoirs (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Reservoir Simulation > Scaling methods (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Formation Evaluation & Management (1.00)