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Collaborating Authors
9th World Petroleum Congress
Abstract The examination of the concept of economy of scale as it applies to the petroleum refining industry is the topic of this paper. The task is accomplished by exploring the three major factors which influence the economics and size of refineries: Capital costs. Operating costs. Market growth. Our discussion touches on equipment and construction limits and on problems of manpower and materials. An economic case study of a hypothetical hydroskimming refinery is chosen to illustrate the impact of size on overall refinery economics. In addition, the many non-technological factors which influence refinery size are briefly discussed. Résunié L'objet de cette communication est d'examiner l'application à l'industrie du pétrole de la proposition qui fait de la taille un facteur de rentabilité. L'auteur procède à l'analyse des trois éléments principaux qui déterminent l'économie et la taille des raffineries: Le coût des investissements. Les coûts d'exploitation. La croissance du marché. L'auteur étudie également les limites imposées par le matériel et les techniques de construction et les problèmes que soulèvent la main d'oeuvre et les matières premières. I1 procède ensuite à l'étude économique d'un cas, celui d'une raffinerie d'hydrotraitement imaginaire qui illustre l'incidence de la taille sur la rentabilité d'une raffinerie. De plus, l'auteur prend brièvement en considération de nombreux facteurs qui ne sont pas d'ordre technologique mais qui influencent néanmoins la taille d'une raffinerie. 1. INTRODUCTION The history of the petroleum processing industry shows a steady trend to larger process units and refineries. These changes have occurred due to the growth of the market and the pressure to produce more efficiently and competitively. Large refineries generally turn out products at lower unit cost than their small competitors. The term "economy of scale" is used to describe this economic advantage of the larger refinery. In this paper we will touch on the "n"-factor relationship between unit capacity and capital cost, examine some of the factors which have led to an increase in the size of new refineries, and look at the growth trend of the refining industry in the recent past and immediate future. We then will explore the current limits of major refining equipment and see how they affect the size and cost of large, single-train refinery process units. This will be followed by a brief discussion of construction limits for large equipment and possible manpower and material limitations. In the concluding sections, we will discuss some of the advantages and disadvantages of single-train refineries, present an example of an economic analysis of a simple hydroskimming refinery at different capacity levels, and present our interpretation of what lies ahead for the refining industry in th
Abstract The most important questions of theory and practice of flooding the oil fields which are being worked out in the USSR are considered in this paper: Utility of water flooding from the start of development. Optimum well spacing pattern. Development of water flooding systems and scales of their application in the USSR. Conditions for development of water-oil zones and multi-reservoir fields. Effect of development rates and injection pressure on efficiency of water flooding. Practice of development of abnormal oil fields. Improvement of water flooding technology by cyclic reservoir stimulation. Solution of environment protection problem by means of new methods of field waste water treatment and the use of subsurface water-bearing formations for water flooding the oil fields. The most characteristic relations, schemes and results of industrial experiment follow the examined problems. Résumé Cette communication traite des questions les plus importantes concernant la théorie et la pratique de l'injection d'eau dans les gisements pétroliers d'URSS: Efficacité de l'injection d'eau des le début de l'exploitation. Espacement optimal des puits. Mise au point de systèmes d'injection d'eau et domaines de leur application. Conditions de l'exploitation des zones eau-huile et des gisements multi-reservoir. Influence des taux d'exploitation et de la pression d'injection sur l'efficacité de l'injection d'eau. Pratique de l'exploitation des gisements à propirété anormales. Amélioration de la technique d'injection d'eau par stimulation cyclique des réservoirs. Solution du problème de la protection de l'environnement au moyen de nouvelles méthodes de traitement d'eaux usées et de l'emploi de formation aquifère souterraine pour l'injection d'eau dans les gisements pétroliers. Les problèmes examinés sont suivis des relations, des schéma et des résultats les plus caractéristiques de l'expérience industrielle. 1. INTRODUCTION mercial application of the water flooding method here has more than 30-years history. It is a well known fact that to develop oil fields In the 1930s a group of specialists under the efficiently the natural reservoir energy is not sufficient guidance of academician I. M. Gubkin on the basis in most cases. Thus, the required extra energy at this of the analysis of oil fields development in the or that stage of field development is to be introduced Grozny area made a conclusion on the more complete into reservoirs from the surface. Of many well-known displacement of oil from the reservoir by contour methods of artificial reservoir stimulation the method water in comparison to displacement of oil at solution of artificial water flooding the oil pools is of the gas drive. This served the basis for carryin
- Asia (1.00)
- Africa > Middle East > Libya > Wadi al Hayaa District (0.42)
- Europe > Russia > Volga Federal District > Bashkortostan (0.28)
- Europe > Russia > North Caucasian Federal District > Chechen Republic > Grozny (0.24)
- Energy > Oil & Gas > Upstream (1.00)
- Water & Waste Management > Water Management > Lifecycle > Treatment (0.54)
- Europe > Russia > Volga Federal District > Tatarstan > Volga Urals Basin > Romashkinskoye Field (0.99)
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- Europe > Russia > Volga Federal District > Bashkortostan > Tuimazy Field (0.99)
- Asia > Kazakhstan > Mangystau Oblast > Mangyshlak-Ustyurt Basin > Uzen Field (0.99)
Abstract Heterogeneous catalyses of various hydrocarbon conversion reactions (dehydrogenation, cracking, hydrocracking and isomerisation) by metal and solid acid catalysts are reviewed in connection with reforming processes. Especially, current knowledge concerning the activation of hydrocarbons on these catalysts is stated and the reaction mechanisms by which the hydrocarbon-catalyst complexes are formed and consumed are also discussed. Furthermore, the correlation between the reactivities of hydrocarbons adsorbed on the catalysts and the geometric and electronic states of adsorption sites in the catalyst surfaces are examined for the sake of improvement of activities and selectivities of the reforming catalysts. Résumé Les catalyses hétéogènes de diverses réactions de conversion des hydrocarbures (deshydrogénation, craquage, hydrocraquage et isomérisation) par des catalyseurs métalliques et des acides solides sont étudiées dans le cas des procédés de reformage. En particulier, les connaissances actuelles concernant l'activation d'hydrocarbures par ces catalyseurs sont exposées, de même que sont discutés les mécanismes des réactions par lesquels les complexes hydrocarbures-catalyseurs sont formés et consommés. De plus, la relation entre la réactivité des hydrocarbures adsorbés sur les catalyseurs et les états géométriques et électroniques des points d'adsorption sur la surface des catalyseurs est examinée en vue d'améliorer les activités et les sélectivités des catalyseurs de reformage. 1. INTRODUCTION At present, qualitative improvement and effective application of petroleum hydrocarbons are most keenly desired. For attaining this purpose, it is indispensable to enhance activities and selectivities of catalysts through elucidation of the mechanisms of reforming, isomerisation, hydrogenolysis and other reactions of hydrocarbons. At the 8th World Petroleum Congress, B. A. Kazansky and A. L. Liberman' presented the excellent review paper of the same title and described precisely the mechanisms of the reactions such as dehydrocyclisation, isomerisation, hydrogenolysis, hydrogenation and disproportionation of olefins. These reactions of petroleum hydrocarbons including cracking and skeletal isomerisation take place generally in the presence of solid acid catalysts or so-called dual functional catalysts which are composed of solid acids and metals. The carbonium ion mechanism proposed for the isomerisation and cracking of by K. TARAMA, Kyoto University, Japan hydrocarbons is operative on the acidic site,2 but the catalytic role of metal in these reactions seems not to be so simple. In this article, recent progresses in these fields are introduced keeping the accent on the catalyst. Firstly, recent progress of studies on the catalytic action of metal for the
- Energy > Oil & Gas > Downstream (1.00)
- Materials > Chemicals > Commodity Chemicals > Petrochemicals (0.92)
Abstract Nakajo Gas Field produces 650 million m3/d natural gas and 75 m3/d condensate. Recently, a system of automating the entire operation and control of the production process of this field by computer has been completed. It is now in the process of actual operation, and is making splendid accomplishment resulting from the use of the system. The system consists of three sub-systems which are the Gas Control System, the Alarm System and the Logging System. The author describes the basic theory, three sub-systems, hard- and software, operation results, corresponding and future subjects of this paper. Résumé Le gisement de Nakajo produit 650 million m3/jour de gaz naturel et 75 m3/jour de condensat. Récemment, l'automatisation complète de l'opération de contrôle de la production du gisement par ordinateur a été terminée. Ce contrôle automatique commence à fonctionner normalement et donne de remarquables résultats. Le système de contrôle est constitué de trois sous-ensembles qui sont: Le Système de Contrôle du Gaz, Le Système d'Alarme, Le Système d'Enregistrement. L'auteur décrit ici, la théorie de base, les trois sous-ensembles, le matériel et le logiciel, les résultats opérationnels. 1. INTRODUCTION Nakajo Gas Field, which belongs to Nippon Mining Co. Ltd, was developed in 1956. At present, the field produces 650 million m3/d natural gas and 75 m3/d condensate from 50 dissolved-in-water-type gas, 40 gas condensate and 5 dry gas wells. 95% of the sales gas is produced from condensate and dry gas wells. This type of natural gas, called "Koozosei Gasu" in Japan, is gathered into the Central Control Station, and is conditioned by several plant-equipments for selling to customers. The sales lines we have used for "Koozosei Gasu" are 12 in, 4 in, 3 in and 1 in lines. 5% of the remaining gas is produced from dissolved-in-water-type gas wells. This type of gas, called "Suiyosei Gasu", is produced by a gas lift and is gathered to the North and South compressor stations by the suction of the compressors. In the stations the gas is compressed, dehydrated and then flown into the sales lines, such as the 10 in, 2 in and 1 in lines. We have been supplying gas to five companies A-E. The A company is the biggest customer, consuming about 93% of the total sales gas processed in this field. by TATSUO TANAKA, Chief Petroleum Engineer, Nippon Mining Co., Japan. The main responsibility in servicing gas to each company is maintaining a holding gas pressure around a certain value at the output point of each sales line. This condition must be obeyed continuously regardless of whether or not the companies demanded rate changes rapidly or voluminously. The wells, Central Control Station, compressor stations, sales lines and the companies which are described above, have expanded and connected as shown in Fig. 1. The purpose of the present
SP 8 Thermal Cracking of Residual Oils Using Superheated Steam and Application of then Products
Gomi, Shimpei (Kureha Chemical Industry Co. Ltd, Tokyo, Japan) | Takahashi, Ryoichi (Eureka Industry Co. Ltd, Tokyo, Japan) | Kiritani, Yoshio (Sumikin Coke Co. Ltd, Wakayama Pref., Japan) | Amagi, Yasuo (Taiyo Kaken Co. Ltd, Japan) | Nishimura, Yasushi (Taiyo Kaken Co. Ltd, Japan)
Abstract Rksumé A new thermal cracking process to produce cracked On a m LS USING SUPERHEATED THE PRODUCTS; au point un nouveau procédé de craquage oil and aromatic pitch Fróm residui1 oils has been developed. The cracked oil is desulphurised to produce low sulphur fuel oil. Various new processes to utilise petroleum-based aromatic pitch have also been developed. One major development is to utilise it as an effective additive to coal for the production of metallurgical coke. Another special development is to utilise it for the production of high quality spherical activated carbon. The first commercial plant to crack 1,000,000 tons/year of asphalt is under construction and will be in operation in Autumn 1975. d'huiles résiduilles permettant dé produire de l'huije craquée et du brai. L'huile craquée, après désulfuration, fournit de l'huile à basse teneur en soufre. On a également mis au point plusieurs nouveaux procédés utilisant comme base le brai aromatique pétrolier dont l'emploi comme additif très efficace du charbon dans la production de coke métallurgique constitue un résultat important ainsi que son emploi comme matière première pour la production du charbon activé sphérique. La première unité industrielle de craquage d'asphalte à capacité annuelle de 1,000,000 tonnes/an est en construction et entrera en production en automne 1975. 1. INTRODUCTION Prior to this new residual oil cracking process, a high temperature steam cracking process was developed and commercialised by Kureha Chemical Industry Company for the production of acetylene and ethylene by SHIMPEI GOMI, Senior Executive Vice-President, Kureha Chemical industry Co., Ltd., 1–8, Nihonbashi Horidome-Cho, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan, RYOICHI TAKAHASHI, Managing Director, Eureka Industry Co., Ltd., Tokyo Office, 1–8, Nihonbashi Horidome-Cho, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan, YOSHIO KIRITANI, Executive Vice-President, Sumikin Coke Co., Ltd., 1850, Minato, Wakayama, Wakayama Pref., Japan, YASUO AMAGI and YASUSHI NISHIMURA, Research Laboratory, Taiyo Kaken Co., Ltd., 3-26-2, Hyakunin-Cho, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan from crude oi1.l This plant has been in continuous operation since 1970. This high temperature steam cracking process, later provided the basis for the Co-development programme by Union Carbide Corp., Chiyoda Chemical Engineering and Construction Co., and Kureha in 1973 for the production of ethylene and other olefins from crude This high temperature steam cracking plant has also provided aromatic pitch for the developmental works of the various utilisation processes of pitch to produce carbonlgraphite fibre, activated carbon4 and an effective additive to coal for the production of metallurgical coke. A test production plant of carbon/graphite fibre with a capacity of 120 tons/year and a test production plant of spherical activated carbon
- Asia > Japan > Kantō > Tokyo Metropolis Prefecture > Tokyo (1.00)
- Asia > Japan > Kansai > Wakayama Prefecture (0.74)
- Materials > Metals & Mining > Coal (1.00)
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- Health, Safety, Environment & Sustainability > Environment > Water use, produced water discharge and disposal (0.68)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Improved and Enhanced Recovery > Reduction of residual oil saturation (0.66)
- Health, Safety, Environment & Sustainability > Environment > Waste management (0.46)
Brief description of process The SNG production process using naphtha consists of two main sub-processes whereby (1) heated naphtha and steam are passed through a catalyst bed and then steam-reformed under a low temperature to gasify the feed and (2) hydrogen in the gas thus produced is converted into methane. The resultant carbon dioxide is eliminated and a gas similar to natural gas in composition, containing methane as its principal component, is produced. In the above gasification process, reforming reactions which are endothermic, and hydrogenolysis and methanation which are exothermic, take place concurrently and the reactions proceed maintaining thermal balance, and when a sufficient quantity of catalyst is provided, the naphtha is gasified and the reactions proceed to a stage where predetermined equilibrium composition is attained according to the specific reaction conditions. The gas obtained in the gasification process can be almost entirely converted into methane and carbon dioxide by having the carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen remaining in the gas reacted upon by selecting the proper reaction conditions of methanation. Although methanation is a major exothermic reaction, the temperature does not exceed the temperature predicted from chemical equilibrium, and the reaction is thus stable. Therefore, throughout both the gasification and methanation processes, the reactions can be carried out in drum type adiabatic reactors. Therefore, the low-temperature steam reforming process is simpler in operation than its high-temperature counterpart. The technology of the low temperature steam reforming evolved from that of methanol gasification1 and the high-temperature steam reforming, was commercialised by the British Gas Council (CRG process)2 and LURGI/BASF (Gasynthan pro ces) in 1965, followed by Japan Gasoline Co. (MRG process) in 196ti4 Prior to the emergence of these processes, fuel gas was produced by means of cyclic processes whereby product gas rich in olefin and carbon monoxide was produced. By adopting low-temperature steam reforming processes, the following advantages have become available. Pressurised operation is possible Town gas production facilities hitherto used have usually been operated at approximately atmospheric pressures and this necessitates blowers or compressors for delivering the product gas. However, low-temperature steam reforming methods have facilitated stable operation up to approximately 700 psig. This is a particular advantage in the case of producing pipeline gas. Product gas is non-toxic Many of the low Btu product gases hitherto in use contain as much as 15–20% carbon monoxide. Therefore, a CO converter or other means is required for reducing the carbon monoxide content. However, with the low-temperature steam reforming process, nontoxic gas with a carbon monoxide content of 1% or less can
- Materials > Chemicals > Commodity Chemicals > Petrochemicals (1.00)
- Energy > Oil & Gas > Downstream (1.00)
PD 17(3I) Power Stations Based on Partial Oxidation of Residual Fuel Oils. Part I: Introduction and Alternative Schemes
Christianovich, S. A. (Institute of High Temperatures, Moscow, U.S.S.R.) | Maslennikov, V. M. (Institute of High Temperatures, Moscow, U.S.S.R.) | Pisman, M. K. (Institute of High Temperatures, Moscow, U.S.S.R.)
INTRODUCTION AND ALTERNATIVE SCHEMES Abstract This paper describes a method for the multi-stage combustion of high-sulphur residual fuel oils in thermal power stations which ensures minimum contamination of the atmosphere. In the first stage of combustion high-pressure steam and fuel gas are produced. The latter is cooled and freed of ash and sulphur compounds. The steam and the purified gas are then used for power generation. The method gives a high rate of sulphur removal and considerable reduction of nitrogen oxide emission. This new power station concept employs gas turbines and steam/gas turbines to obtain an optimum use of energy. A discussion of its technical and economic aspects concludes the paper. Résumé Cette communication décrit un procédé de combustion en plusieurs étapes des fuels oils résiduaires à haute teneur en soufre dans les centrales thermiques permettant de réduire à un minimum l'émission de polluants dans l'atmosphère. Au cours de la première phase de la combustion, on génère de la vapeur à haute pression et on produit un gaz combustible. Ce dernier est refroidi et débarrassé des cendres et composés sulfureux. La vapeur et le gaz combustible épuré sont alors utilisés pour la production d'énergie électrique. Cette méthode permet d'atteindre un haut degré de désulfuration et une réduction considérable des émissions d'oxyde d'azote. Les centrales électriques de cette conception nouvelle mettent en oeuvre des turbines à gaz ou des combinaisons de turbines à gaz et de turbines à vapeur de façon à obtenir une utilisation optimale de l'énergie. On termine la communication par une discussion des aspects techniques et économiques des schémas proposés. 1. INTRODUCTION combined power generation cycles employing gas and steam-gas turbines entailing cuts in construction costs for power plants. These savings in power generation, even for currently operable temperature levels of working substance before it reaches the gas turbines, can make up the additional "clean" fuel costs and, as the paper shows, the cost of power at such plants preventing undesirable exhausts to the atmosphere could be lower than with modern steam-turbine power plants discharging wastes to the atmosphere. Besides, there are realistic prospects of substantially raising the working substance temperature before it reaches the gas turbines which would significantly increase their efficiency and reduce electricity costs, whereas the efficiency of steam-turbine units for a long time has remained stable at a certain level which proves that in this respect they are close to their limit. As a result of thermal power stations burning traditional energy fuels: coal and residual fuel oil, containing sulphur and ash, a lot of sulphur compounds and fly ashes, undesirable for people and the environment, are
- Materials > Chemicals (1.00)
- Energy > Power Industry (1.00)
- Energy > Oil & Gas > Upstream (1.00)
- Energy > Oil & Gas > Downstream (1.00)
Abstract 1971–1974 in the following fields: This review paper will cover progress in the years Phase equilibria-major interest concerns the Wilson and NRTL equations. Extraction and extractive distillation-new solvents for extraction and extractive distillation processes will be reviewed. Low temperature separation-LNG, ethylene production improvements and new methods (RANK- HILSCH-effect) are covered. Adsorption-interesting new developments for the separation of gases and hydrocarbons are presented. Membrane processes-potential applications and theoretical aspects of possible future developments will be given. Dewaxing-a survey of new developments is given. Résumé Cette communication décrit les progrès réalisés pendant les années 1971 à 1974 dans les domaines suivants: Equilibre de phase-l'intérêt principal concerne les équations de Wilson et NRTL. Séparation à basse température-GNL; perfectionnement de la production d'éthylène et méthodes nouvelles (effet RANK-HILSCH) sont traités. Adsorption-nouveaux développements intéressants concernant la séparation des gaz et des hydrocarbures. Extraction et distillation extractive-solvants nouveaux servant à l'extraction et procédés de distillation extractive. Procédés à membrane-applications potentielles et aspects théoriques de développements futurs. Déparaffinage-aperGu des nouveautés dans ce domaine. 1. INTRODUCTION Reviewing the field of hydrocarbon separations as a whole, two statements can be made, allowing for some generalisation. The first is, and this probably seems trivial, that distillation, absorption, and extraction still are among the number of unit operations commonly applied for separation purposes of fundamental importance and most likely will remain so for quite some time. However, and this is the second statement, in addition to the conventional techniques, new separation methods are emerging attracting more and more attention. The most important of these new techniques is certainly "membrane separation". On the theoretical side of research, much effort is still being devoted to analysing and clarifying the classical unit operations. In this respect, studies especially on the rate of mass transfer and the hydro- by F. MOSER, Technical University, Graz, Austria dynamics of mass transfer equipment are of general importance. It is surprising, if one analyses any of the unit operations involved in detail-take for instance, distillation or extraction, how little is known about the fundamental phenomena of these operations. Therefore, although we use these operations extensively, we have to rely in the design, on experiments and experience. Basic research into the fundamental phenomena underlying these operations therefore has its justification for some time to come. 2. PHASEEQUILIBRIA A basic pre-requisite to the design of any mass transfer equipment is the knowledge of the phase equilibrium relationships involved, either
- North America > United States (0.93)
- Europe > Austria > Styria > Graz (0.25)
- Materials > Chemicals > Commodity Chemicals > Petrochemicals (1.00)
- Energy > Oil & Gas (1.00)
SP 10 The New Methods of Purification and Stabilisation of the Oil and Oil Refinery Products by the Low Valent Transition Metal Compounds
Tyurin, V. D. (I. M. Gubkin Institute of Petrochemical and Gas Industry, Moscow, U.S.S.R.) | Gubin, S. P. (I. M. Gubkin Institute of Petrochemical and Gas Industry, Moscow, U.S.S.R.) | Nametkin, N. S. (I. M. Gubkin Institute of Petrochemical and Gas Industry, Moscow, U.S.S.R.)
Abstract The new methods of refining and stabilisation of the oil and oil products based on the reaction of undesirable oil product components with the low valent transition metal compounds have been developed. These methods could be used for refining of straightrun distillates (gasolines, kerosenes, gasoils) and crude oil as well as the secondary generated gasolines (the thermal and thermocatalytical cracking and pyrolysis gasolines). After such treatment the oil products are entirely free of H, S, S, mercaptanes and disulphide, sulphur and the total sulphur content decreases considerably. On the other hand the concentrations of the nitrogenand oxygen-containing compounds, naphthenic acids and other reactive mixtures decrease by 20–50 %. It has been shown that dienes present in cracking gasolines react with transition metal compounds forming corresponding n-complexes. Simultaneously sulphur, hydrogen sulphide and organosulphur compounds also react with n-complexes as well as with initial reagents. Résumé On a mis au point de nouvelles méthodes de raffinage et de stabilisation du pétrole et de produits pétroliers basées sur la réaction de produits pétroliers non désirés avec des composés de métaux de transition de faible valence. Ces méthodes pourraient être utilisés pour le raffinage de produit de distillation directe (essence, kerosène, gas-oils) et de pétrole brut et aussi pour les essences obtenues par des procédés secondaires (essence de craquage thermique et thermocatalytique et de pyrolyse). Apres ce traitement les produits pétroliers ne contiennent absolument plus de H2S, de S, de mercaptans et de disulfure, et leur teneur totale en soufre est considérablement abaissée. Par ailleurs la concentration des composés azotés et oxygénés, des acides naphténiques et d'autres mélanges réactifs décroit de 20–50 %. On a montré que les hydrocarbures dièniques présents dans les essences de craquage réagissent avec les composés de métaux de transition en formant les complexes correspondants. Simultanément le soufre, le H2S et les composés organo-sulfures réagissent aussi avec les complexes n de même qu'avec les réactifs initiaux. 1. INTRODUCTION products increased sharply. At this time state organisations in many countries have taken measures towards a decrease of atmospheric contamination. Special attention has been paid to the formation of sulphur oxides upon combustion of sulphuric oil and oil products since these are the main contaminators of the atmosphere in the view of health danger. At the same time jet aviation reached the sound and super sound barriers and this sharply stimulated the control of jet fuel quality and first of all the content of sulphuric compounds. All thes
- Energy > Oil & Gas > Downstream (1.00)
- Materials > Chemicals > Commodity Chemicals > Petrochemicals (0.69)
Abstract A rational study of energy policy must consider the total world energy system. Preliminary results from a computerised World Energy Model show the potential impact of such an analysis on important political decisions, particularly the equilibrium value of crude oil. This paper describes the development and use of a method for the study of substitution mechanisms between other forms of energy and oil, the consequences of such substitutions on investment programmes and their effect on equilibrium prices. One specific substitution between natural gas and oil has been examined, since it could be implemented within the medium term using existing technology and could therefore help to bridge the period which must elapse before the long-term impact of coal, nuclear power, etc. is felt. Résumé Une étude rationnelle de la politique énergétique doit prendre en considération l'ensemble du système énergétique mondial. Les résultats préliminaires d'un modèle mathématique de l'énergie mondial montrent l'importance potentielle d'une telle analyse pour les décisions politiques, particulièrement la valeur d'équilibre du pétrole brut. Cette communication décrit le développement et l'exploitation d'une méthode dans l'étude des mécanismes de substitution du pétrole brut par d'autres formes d'énergie et d'hydrocarbures, et les conséquences de telles substitutions sur les programmes d'investissement et les prix d'équilibre. On examine le cas du remplacement du pétrole par le gaz naturel qui pourrait être mise en oeuvre à moyen terme avec la technologie actuelle, et par conséquent aider à faire la soudure avec la période à long terme où le charbon, l'énergie nucléaire, etc. commenceront à avoir une influence non négligeable. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY Previous papers'.' on World Energy Modelling have examined the international structure of the oil and gas industry. It has been demonstrated, by reference to historical data, that the equilibrium prices of products in the international market are consistent with the hypothesis of a competitive market. Using this hypothesis the world energy system can be studied by an appropriate economic model based on linear programming with a maximum profit/maximum cost objective function. Since oil and, to an increasing extent, gas are the only forms of energy in which there is a large-scale international trade, all other forms of energy may be treated in the medium term as local competitors for certain types of end use. This paper describes the development and use of a method for the study of substitution mechanisms between other forms of energy and oil, the consequences of such substitutions on investment programmes and their effect on equilibrium prices. One specific substitution between natural gas and oil has been examined, since it could be implemented within the medium term using existing