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Collaborating Authors
Newfoundland and Labrador
Static Modelling and Fault Seal Analysis of the Migrant Rollover Structure, Sable Subbasin, Offshore Nova Scotia, Canada
Martyns-Yellowe, K. T. (Basin and Reservoir Lab, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Dalhousie University) | Richards, F. W. (Basin and Reservoir Lab, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Dalhousie University) | Watson, N. (Atlantic Petrophysics Limited, Nova Scotia) | Wach, G. D. (Basin and Reservoir Lab, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Dalhousie University)
Abstract Crestal faulting can lead to breach of trap integrity and leakage. The Migrant structure is an example of a potentially breached trap due to fault leakage and juxtaposition. In this paper we use 3D geocellular modeling, populated with new interpretation of input parameters, including shale volume, to examine the possible mechanism for leakage (crestal faulting). A fault plane profile (Allan diagram) was constructed, which can be taken a further step into dynamic modelling and simulation (not presented in this study). Located in the Sable Sub-basin, the Migrant structure is a fault controlled, four-way dip anticlinal closure, which formed as one of a series of related structures during rift basin extension, sediment loading and salt mobilization in the Cretaceous. Genetically related rollover structures (e.g., the Distal Thebaud Field) in a similar structural and stratigraphic setting have proved viable as a commercial trap. The Migrant N-20 well was drilled to test for hydrocarbons trapped in Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous deltaic and fluvial-deltaic reservoirs in the structure. The well encountered gas from a deep sand reservoir during drill stem testing (DST 2) with a reported flow rate of 10 million standard cubic feet per day. However, over the duration of the test, an associated decline in flow rate and pressure depletion was observed, which led the operators to consider the target reservoir as non-commercial. In this paper we present a re-appraisal to assess why this trap failed by integrating well data (logs, checkshot and pressure) and 3D seismic to produce a static model demonstrating the trapping mechanism in the Migrant Structure. Initial observation of the 3D seismic shows shallow crestal faults while preliminary observation of well logs from the Migrant N-20 well suggests a diminishing sand/shale ratio from the shallow to deep sections of the trap. This study of the Migrant Structure contributes to the understanding of the relationship between reservoir and seal thicknesses relative to fault displacement and its role in subsurface fluid trapping or cross-fault leakage, through upward and outward displacement (stair-stepping) between reservoirs of different ages across a given fault. The paper shows how data integration and workflows have been combined effectively and is an important contribution for risk assessment in the Sable Subbasin. The proposed model can be applied in other basins including the similar salt cored basins like those offshore Brazil.
- North America > Canada > Nova Scotia > North Atlantic Ocean (0.88)
- North America > Canada > Newfoundland and Labrador > Newfoundland > North Atlantic Ocean (0.28)
- Phanerozoic > Mesozoic > Jurassic > Upper Jurassic (0.48)
- Phanerozoic > Mesozoic > Cretaceous > Lower Cretaceous (0.48)
- Geology > Structural Geology > Tectonics (1.00)
- Geology > Structural Geology > Fault (1.00)
- Geology > Sedimentary Geology > Depositional Environment (1.00)
- (4 more...)
- Geophysics > Seismic Surveying > Surface Seismic Acquisition (1.00)
- Geophysics > Borehole Geophysics (1.00)
- Geophysics > Seismic Surveying > Seismic Processing (0.93)
- (3 more...)
- Oceania > New Zealand > East Coast Basin > PEP 38348 (0.99)
- North America > Canada > Saskatchewan > Western Canada Sedimentary Basin > Alberta Basin (0.99)
- North America > Canada > Nova Scotia > Scotian Slope > Missisauga Formation (0.99)
- (18 more...)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Storage Reservoir Engineering > CO2 capture and sequestration (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Reservoir Characterization > Seismic processing and interpretation (1.00)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Reservoir Characterization > Sedimentology (1.00)
- (5 more...)
Visual Twin for Pipeline Leak Detection
Hamilton, M. (Computer Science, Memorial University, St. John's, NL, Canada) | Al-Ammari, W. (Mechanical Engineering, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar) | AbuShanab, Y. (Mechanical Engineering, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar) | Sleiti, A. (Mechanical Engineering, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar) | Hassan, R. (Petroleum Engineering Department, Texas A&M University College State, USA) | Hassan, I. (Petroleum Engineering Department, Texas A&M University at Qatar) | Kaan, M.S. (Petroleum Engineering Department, Texas A&M University at Qatar) | Rezaei-Gomari, S. (Teeside University, Middlesbrough, UK) | Rahman, M. A. (Petroleum Engineering Department, Texas A&M University at Qatar)
Abstract Objectives/Scope We describe a visual digital twin system to allow for both operation and training of a data-driven pipeline leak detection system. We show system design in terms of its data inputs and the software system which incorporates this data in real time. This system allows visualization of pipeline data and machine learning-driven leak detection in a pipeline sitting in a subsea context. The intended purpose of the system is to both train operators of the leak detection system in its use and also provide high situational awareness to those tasked with monitoring pipeline deployments. The visual digital twin system uses gaming engine technology to achieve high visual quality. We also construct a novel software system enhancement to incorporate live data streams into the gaming engine environment. This allows real-time driving of gaming engine visualization elements with which we may augment the gaming engine environment. In terms of visualization, we focus on addressing problems of large ranges of multiple scales and providing high situational awareness which minimize operator fatigue and cognitive load. We show how multiple camera views in combination with a convenient user interface can help to address these issues. We demonstrate a digital twin system for leak detection. We show its realtime operation in a gaming engine environment with the ability to instantaneously incorporate outside data sources into the visualizations. We demonstrate using simulated pipeline flow data from sensors such as pressure, temperature, etc. This is visualized in the context of a subsea pipeline on a sea floor. Given the large range of scales, we demonstrate how we can view both the full kilometer scale pipeline and smaller subsections in the context of specific sensor data streams. The overall system demonstrates a novel combination of advanced software systems which incorporates real-time data stream with visualization using a high-fidelity gaming engine. The data used represents a leak detection scenario where both operator training and situational awareness are key desired outcomes.
- Asia (0.94)
- North America > Canada > Newfoundland and Labrador > Newfoundland > St. John's (0.28)
Since 2011, the Oil and Gas Corporation of Newfoundland and Labrador (Oilco, formerly Nalcor Energy Oil and Gas) along with partners Petroleum Geo-Services (PGS) and TGS Geophysical have embarked on a multiyear regional two-dimensional (2D) seismic program offshore Newfoundland and Labrador (NL). More than 180,000 line kilometers of 2D broadband seismic have been acquired by 2022 as well as nine three-dimensional (3D) surveys covering over 60,000 square kilometers of frontier basins. The seismic data collected have led to some major scientific advancements of the regional geology, such as the newly defined Chidley, Holton, Henley, and Hawke sedimentary basins off the Labrador coast (Carter et al., 2013), and a Lower Tertiary play trend (Wright et al., 2016), which was imaged on the 2015 multiclient 3D seismic survey. The NL offshore now has 20 defined sedimentary basins ranging from the Paleozoic to Cenozoic ages, all of which are potential candidates for oil and gas exploration (Figure 1). As part of Oilco's exploration strategy, an ice and metocean study was considered a critical piece of information in an area of frontier exploration. Oilco issued the Metocean Climate Study Reports (and associated Nalcor Exploration Strategy System (NESS) database and Geographic Information System (GIS)) for Phase 1 in May 2015 (C-CORE, 2015; King et al., 2015), Phase 2 in September 2017 (C-CORE, 2017), and Phase 3 in April 2022 (C-CORE, 2022). Phase 1 covered the area from 45.5
- North America > Canada > Newfoundland and Labrador > Labrador (1.00)
- North America > Canada > Newfoundland and Labrador > Newfoundland > North Atlantic Ocean (0.47)
- North America > Canada > Newfoundland and Labrador > Newfoundland > St. John's (0.29)
- North America > United States > Alaska > North Slope Basin > Burger Field > Kuparuk Formation (0.99)
- North America > Canada > Newfoundland and Labrador > Newfoundland > North Atlantic Ocean > Atlantic Margin Basin > Grand Banks Basin > Orphan Basin (0.99)
- North America > Canada > Newfoundland and Labrador > Newfoundland > North Atlantic Ocean > Atlantic Margin Basin > Grand Banks Basin > Jeanne d'Arc Basin (0.99)
- (14 more...)
_ The R. V. Polarstern carried out ice breaking trials in which ice forces were measured with special panels at two locations in the bow. Time series records of the ice forces for a 13-minute period were compared for differences in terms of magnitude and duration of loading for the two locations. Maximum force of 2800 kN was measured on a 1 m panel. The nature of ice forces measured on the panels was very different in terms of frequency and duration compared to those measured with strain-gauged frames on the R. V. Polarstern and the CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent. Introduction A ship navigating in ice-covered waters will interact with ice, generating forces. This is a process where the ship and the ice interact with each other. A good overview of the issues can be found in Kujala (2017). The forces measured depend on a number of factors, such as ice thickness, floe size, ice type, ice strength properties, ship speed, ship structure, hull form, and the measuring system itself. Various types of instrumentation have been used to measure ice loading on vessel hulls. This has included strain gauging of the hull structure itself, i.e., frames and plates and application of an influence matrix to convert the measured strains to ice forces. With multiple strain gauges, a relatively large area can be covered and force distribution within the area determined. Examples include the USCGC Polar Sea where a 9 m area of the bow was subdivided into 60 sub-areas, each 0.15 m (St. John and Daley, 1984), the CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent with a 14 m area divided into 15 sub-areas of 0.75 m (Ritch, 2005) or recently the Frij with 9 m divided into 36 sub-areas of 0.24 m (Piercey et al., 2016). To determine forces on smaller areas, bending strains in plates over smaller framed areas were employed and one of the smallest was 8 mm dia. (Glen and Comfort, 1983). Interpretation of measurements on plates, particularly when they are larger than 0.1 m, are dependent on the distribution of ice forces on the plate. A different approach has been to use load cells for direct force measurement on an isolated section of hull. This approach provides a direct measure of the total ice force on the area, independent of distribution. Normally the measurement areas have been limited in size, and substantial modifications to the hull structure are required to accommodate this approach. An implementation of this approach was on the R. V. Polarstern where areas of 1 m were implemented. The hull structure of the R. V. Polarstern was also strain gauged. This paper will describe some results of the two measurement approaches on the R. V. Polarstern, comparing them with each other and also with strain-gauged-based measurements on another ship.
- North America > Canada > Newfoundland and Labrador > Labrador (0.42)
- North America > Canada > Ontario > National Capital Region > Ottawa (0.28)
Summary We introduce an innovative technique for simultaneous inversion of velocity and angle-dependent reflectivity. The key aspect of our method lies in extracting angle information from the solution of the vector-reflectivity-based wave equation, which is a crucial step in the process. The incorporation of pre-stack angle gathers significantly enhances our understanding of subsurface and reservoir properties. The outcomes of our approach encompass the velocity model, reflectivity image, and pre-stack angle gathers, along with the derived relative density and impedance. These results provide valuable insights for conducting reliable amplitude versus angle (AVA) analysis and quantitative interpretation (QI).
ABSTRACT As the world transitions from fossil fuels to renewable energy to mitigate climate change, Canada has set a target for achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. As part of Canada's plan to achieve net-zero carbon emissions, a study was undertaken to examine the feasibility of using floating offshore wind turbines to reduce emissions from oil and gas facilities offshore Newfoundland. This paper examines the risks to the turbines due to atmospheric icing from freezing sea spray and precipitation, and offers possible mitigation measures. Results show that icing offshore Newfoundland tends to be light, but still poses a risk to turbine operability. INTRODUCTION Energy Research and Innovation Newfoundland and Labrador (NL) is managing and administering the offshore research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) component of Natural Resources Canada's Emissions Reduction Fund (ERF). ERF applied research and innovation projects are looking at ways to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Newfoundland and Labrador's offshore oil and gas industry. The Intecsea study is looking at the use of offshore floating wind turbines to provide power to offshore oil and gas production facilities. The Governments of Canada and Newfoundland and Labrador are also supporting projects through the NL Offshore Oil and Gas Industry Recovery Assistance Fund (OOGIRA), where projects provide direct and indirect employment within the province and offshore sector, generate positive environmental benefits or co-benefits, and support the existing oil and gas installations and infrastructure linked to existing installations. OOGIRA funds, which the Government of NL is managing, is augmenting the offshore floating wind turbines study. In this paper, we examine the risk of atmospheric icing during the fall, winter, and spring, to the wind turbine blades. Icing on offshore wind turbines can occur due to three mechanisms: one, wind and wave-generated sea spray icing, two, ice build-up due to the accretion of freezing rain or wet snow (e.g., precipitation icing), and three, frost icing due to vapor freezing directly into the blade surface. Wind turbine icing can impede power generation, damage turbine blades in extreme ice build-up scenarios, and can present hazards to personnel in their vicinity due to ice falling off the turbine blades. For floating offshore wind turbines, ice build-up can additionally create balance issues. The rate of ice build-up due to super-cooled sea spray freezing on contact with the turbines is a function of the air and sea surface temperatures, the wind speed, and the saltwater freezing point. When precipitation icing occurs, the rate of ice accretion on turbine blades is a function of the wind speed, the liquid water content of the precipitation, the mean droplet size, the fraction of the precipitation that freezes, and the efficiency with which the turbine blades collect the freezing precipitation. The rate of precipitation icing on wind turbines is not an explicit function of air temperature, as it occurs only due to freezing rain or wet snow when air temperatures are typically 0-3°C (e.g., see Laforte and Allaire, 1992). The region of interest (ROI) for this study is defined by 45° to 51°N, 51° to 45°W, which is further divided into 144 (12 × 12) 0.5° × 0.5° "cells" (Fig. 1).
- North America > Canada > Newfoundland and Labrador > Newfoundland (1.00)
- North America > Canada > Newfoundland and Labrador > Labrador (0.65)
Incorporation of the Compatible Trench into the SCR Fatigue Performance by Using an Equivalent Soil Stiffness Methodology
Janbazi, Hossein (Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland) | Shiri, Hodjat (Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland)
ABSTRACT Several studies have incorporated the trench effect into the SCR's fatigue analysis based on the two main approaches: artificial insertion of a trench profile in the TDZ, and automated trench formation using non-linear hysteretic riser-seabed interaction models. There have been contradictory results with no coherent agreement on the beneficial or detrimental effect of the trench on fatigue life. The current study has been conducted to resolve existing challenges by proposing a reliable methodology by defining an equivalent stiffness to generate a consistent trench profile entirely compatible with the natural curvature of the SCR in the TDZ. INTRODUCTION Steel Catenary Risers (SCRs) are widely used in deep-water offshore facilities to convey hydrocarbon products from the seabed to the floating structures. Due to the cyclic motion of the floating vessel, the riser repeatedly makes contact with the seabed resulting in progressive soil degradation in touchdown zone (TDZ), leading to the gradual penetration of the riser into the seabed. Subsea surveys showed that this riser embedment further develops over the early years of riser operation (first 2-3 years of operation), reaching the ultimate profile with a maximum depth of around 2.5D to 5D, where D is the pipe diameter (Thethi and Moros, 2001; Bridge and Howells, 2007). Previous studies have widely investigated the influence of the trench effect on the fatigue analysis of catenary risers, particularly SCRs. Some of the studies have shown the fatigue life improvement in the TDZ due to trench formation (e.g., Langner, 2003; Nakhaei and Zhang, 2008; Elliot et al., 2013; Randolph et al., 2013; Sharma and Aubeny, 2011; Wang et al., 2016), while other studies have shown a reduced fatigue life (e.g., Leira, 2004; Giertsen, 2004; Shiri and Randolph 2010; Rezazadeh et al., 2012; Shiri, 2014a, b; Zargar 2017). Also, some studies have obtained scattered results showing improved or reduced fatigue life because of trench formation (Randolph et al., 2013; Dong and Shiri, 2019; Shoghi and Shiri, 2019; 2020). It can be seen that there is not a coherent answer among the researchers, and the beneficial or detrimental effect of the trench is still a point of the question. Shoghi and Shiri (2020) conducted a qualitative assessment of the trench effect based on the results reported in the literature and showed that some of these contradictory results are related to the methodology used to implement the trench profile underneath the riser.
- North America > United States (0.94)
- North America > Canada > Newfoundland and Labrador > Newfoundland (0.28)
ABSTRACT In 2015, the Oil and Gas Corporation of Newfoundland and Labrador, in collaboration with C-CORE, undertook the first iteration of a metocean and ice climatology study and database for the offshore Newfoundland and Labrador region. Data were initially summarized for 391 study area sub-sections or "grid cells." The study was updated in 2017 and 2021-2022 and expanded to 575 grid cells. This paper summarizes the key results from the most recent 2021-2022 study. The main aim of the study is to provide the most comprehensive, up-to-date, and accurate database regarding the meteorological, oceanographic, and ice conditions in the study area. INTRODUCTION Since 2011, the Oil and Gas Corporation of Newfoundland and Labrador (Oilco, formerly Nalcor Energy Oil and Gas) along with partners Petroleum Geo-Services (PGS) and TGS Geophysical have embarked on a multiyear regional two-dimensional (2D) seismic program offshore Newfoundland and Labrador (NL). More than 180,000 line kilometers of 2D broadband seismic have been acquired by 2022 as well as nine three-dimensional (3D) surveys covering over 60,000 square kilometers of frontier basins. The seismic data collected have led to some major scientific advancements of the regional geology, such as the newly defined Chidley, Holton, Henley, and Hawke sedimentary basins off the Labrador coast (Carter et al., 2013), and a Lower Tertiary play trend (Wright et al., 2016), which was imaged on the 2015 multi-client 3D seismic survey. The NL offshore now has 20 defined sedimentary basins ranging from the Paleozoic to Cenozoic ages, all of which are potential candidates for oil and gas exploration (Fig. 1). As part of Oilco's exploration strategy, an ice and metocean study was considered a critical piece of information in an area of frontier exploration. Oilco issued the Metocean Climate Study Reports (and associated Nalcor Exploration Strategy System (NESS) database and Geographic Information System (GIS)) for Phase 1 in May 2015 (C-CORE, 2015; and King et al., 2015), Phase 2 in September 2017 (C-CORE, 2017), and Phase 3 in April 2022 (C-CORE, 2022). Phase 1 covered the area from 45.5° N to 63° N latitude, and from 42° W to 65° W longitude, with a total of 391 "grid cells" (of 0.5° Latitude × 1° Longitude each). Phases 2 and 3 extend further south, covering the area from 39.5° N to 63° N and from 42° W to 65° W, covering the entire Grand Banks and the Southern Shore and the West Coast of Newfoundland-Gulf of St. Lawrence east of Anticosti Island. Phases 2 and 3 encompass 575 grid cells (Fig. 2), an area of more than 2.3 × 10 km offshore NL.
- North America > Canada > Newfoundland and Labrador > Labrador (1.00)
- North America > Canada > Newfoundland and Labrador > Newfoundland > North Atlantic Ocean (0.47)
- North America > Canada > Newfoundland and Labrador > Newfoundland > North Atlantic Ocean > Atlantic Margin Basin > Grand Banks Basin > Orphan Basin (0.99)
- North America > Canada > Newfoundland and Labrador > Newfoundland > North Atlantic Ocean > Atlantic Margin Basin > Grand Banks Basin > Jeanne d'Arc Basin (0.99)
- Europe > United Kingdom > Atlantic Margin > West of Shetland > Rockall Basin (0.99)
- (15 more...)
ABSTRACT Trenched subsea pipelines may experience significant lateral displacement due to permanent ground movements such as strike slip-fault movements, landslides, ice gouging, etc. In shallow depth, using pre-excavated seabed soil as a backfilling material is a cost-effective option to protect pipelines against large deformations. This kind of pre-excavated material usually gets highly remolded and becomes considerably softer than the native seabed soil. The shear strength difference between the backfilling and seabed soil can result in the pipeline-backfill-trench interaction during large deformation and therefore significantly influence the failure mechanism of the surrounding soil and the soil resistance acting on the pipeline. The pipeline-backfill-trench interaction has not been well considered in the present design guidelines, and usually uniform soil has been considered to simplify this issue. In this research, the performance of buried steel pipeline in the strike-slip fault movement is investigated using the Coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian (CEL) method to investigate the failure mechanisms considering strain-softening behavior. This study examined the importance of various parameters, including the geometry of the trench, and the backfill and seabed soil strength on the pipeline-backfill trench interaction. INTRODUCTION Over the past two decades, oil and gas facilities in the offshore area have been extended from deep water floating production structures to shallow water fixed systems. Subsea pipelines are one of the most efficient, reliable, and safest among these facilities for transporting hydrocarbons. In shallow seas, pipelines are typically buried inside trenches to protect them against any external or internal loads during operation. Moreover, geographic dispersion can severely damage buried pipelines. The structural behavior of buried pipelines subjected to permanent ground displacement (PGD) has been extensively studied in recent years. PGD caused by earthquakes, liquefaction-induced soil movements, or landslides can cause significant damage to underground lifelines. One of the major factors affecting the pipeline's behavior and performance has been recognized as the complex interaction between the pipeline and the surrounding soil in the vicinity of the fault zone. Although earthquake and pipeline engineers have not extensively studied the response of soil to fault ruptures, there have been some significant contributions from Newmark & Hall (1975), Kennedy et al. (1977), Wang & Yeh (1985), Takada et al. (2001), Trautmann & O'Rourke (1985) Ha et al. (2008), O'Rourke et al. (2008), Vazouras et al. (2010), Vazouras et al. (2012), Liu et al. (2016) Zhang et al. (2016) and Özcebe et al. (2017).
- Geology > Structural Geology > Tectonics > Plate Tectonics > Earthquake (0.98)
- Geology > Structural Geology > Fault > Strike-Slip Fault (0.81)
- Reservoir Description and Dynamics > Reservoir Characterization > Faults and fracture characterization (1.00)
- Facilities Design, Construction and Operation > Pipelines, Flowlines and Risers > Piping design and simulation (1.00)
- Facilities Design, Construction and Operation > Pipelines, Flowlines and Risers > Offshore pipelines (1.00)
ABSTRACT The R.V. POLARSTERN carried out ice breaking trials in which ice forces were measured with special panels at two locations in the bow. Time series records of the ice forces for a 13-minute period were compared for differences in terms of magnitude and duration of loading for the two locations. Maximum force of 2800 kN was measured on a 1 m panel. The nature of ice forces measured on the panels were very different in terms of frequency and duration compared to those measured with strain-gauged frames on the R.V. Polarstern and the CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent. INTRODUCTION A ship navigating in ice-covered waters will interact with ice, generating forces. This is a process where the ship and the ice interact with each other. A good overview of the issues can be found in Kujala, (2017). The forces measured depend on a number of factors such as ice thickness, floe size, ice type, ice strength properties, ship speed, ship structure, hull form and the measuring system itself. Various types of instrumentation have been used to measure ice loading on vessel hulls. This has included strain gauging of the hull structure itself, i.e., frames and plates and the application an influence matrix to convert the measured strains to ice forces. With multiple strain gauges, a relatively large area can be covered and force distribution within the area determined. Examples include the USCGC Polar Sea where a 9 m area of the bow was subdivided in to 60 sub-areas, each 0.15 m (St. John and Daley, 1983), the CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent with a 14 m area divided into 15 sub-areas of 0.75 m (Ritch, 2005) or recently the Frij with 9 m divided into 36 sub-areas of 0.24 m (Piercey et al, 2016). To determine forces on smaller areas bending strains in plates over smaller framed areas were employed and one of the smallest was 8 mm dia. (Glen and Comfort, 1983). Interpretation of measurements on plates, particularly when they are larger than 0.1 m are dependent on the distribution of ice forces on the plate. A different approach has been to use load cells for direct force measurement on an isolated section of hull. This approach provides a direct measure of the total ice force on the area, independent of distribution. Normally the measurement areas have been limited in size and substantial modifications to the hull structure are required to accommodate this approach. An implementation of this approach was on the R.V. Polarstern where areas of 1 m were implemented. The hull structure of the R.V. Polarstern also strain gauged. This paper will describe some results of the two measurement approaches on the R.V. Polarstern, comparing them with each other and also compare with strain-gauged-based measurements on another ship.
- North America > Canada > Newfoundland and Labrador > Labrador (0.41)
- North America > Canada > Ontario > National Capital Region > Ottawa (0.28)